Hunter Valley Backyard Nature

Blog Action Day 2009 - Climate Change

2009-10-15T06:37:00.013+11:00

Have you ever stood on a mountain top at dawn?

As I gazed in silence across the valleys and peaks, I was stunned by the wondrous scene that stretched before me.

Below me lay a blanket of cloud covering untold forest secrets. Turbulent streams of white mist raced through narrow jagged gorges, swirling over and around obstructions, just like boulders interrupting the flow of raging rivers.

Streams of fog reached the escarpment and cascaded silently over the edge, rolling until the momentum was curbed and they no longer held any shape. Tree-clad peaks pierced the clouds forming islands in the sky - an archipelago in a sea of tumbling white.

A mysterious golden glow radiated from somewhere beneath this bubbling carpet of cloud, creating shadows and subtle pink and orange hues. And suddenly, chunks of cloud broke away and drifted off like wispy campfire smoke, disintegrating, revealing hidden slopes and valleys. The remaining translucent fog simply dissolved. Sunshine warmed the air and earth, and the day awakened with birdsong and breeze.

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To the casual observer who arrived at the lookout to view the sunrise, the fog might be nothing more than an untimely nuisance, but to the person who truly interprets nature for the remarkable life-giving force it is, the cloudy morning is a beautiful gift to the senses, to be treasured.

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The disastrous effects of Climate Change are fast approaching, if not already upon us. Skepticism and nonchalance is rife. I have something to say about this ignorance and apathy, whether it be in the form of lack of interest or concern, total disregard for the consequences “because it won’t affect me”, or a genuine disbelief in scientific data/predictions. I challenge these people to honestly experience nature in it’s raw and unsullied form; get out there and get to know what humans are risking by not taking responsible care of the Earth. Only when you have felt the energy of the Earth, looked Nature in the eye and allowed its spirit to touch and nourish your soul, can you stand up and announce with conviction that you want to protect Planet Earth.

“Our lives begin to end the day we become silent about things that matter” Martin Luther King Jr.

How can the human race turn the tide of destruction and exploitation it has ravaged on the planet unless people are encouraged to seek a basic understanding of, and genuine interest in nature? A forest is not merely a bland canvas of green and brown, but a living breathing ecosystem comprised of earth, plants, rocks, animals, fungi, invertebrates, micro-organisms, water and air. Every component of that ecosystem is interconnected in the complex web of life. Humans are not superior or separate to nature - they are part of the web of life.

A race of greedy humans is stripping the Earth bare, degrading and polluting. What will be left for our grand-children’s children? What plants and animals will go extinct due to our actions or inaction? What will it mean to us and our planet when countless threads of the web are irreversibly broken? What will life be like when the last corner of the globe is trashed?

“By over-exploiting the Earth’s resources we are undermining the very basis of our own life.” 14th Dalai Lama.

Climate Change and environmental sustainability are not simple subjects, but we are living in an age of unprecedented environmental awareness. Information is freely available. Attitudes must change. Awareness and education is critical in promoting and adopting environmentally sustainable lifestyle practices, both individual and corporate.

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Although time is of the essence, I firmly believe mass recognition and change could be a reality by beginning at the beginning - Nature. Can a person reel from the profound loss of a forest or desert or ocean before he/she truly experiences the grandness and wonder of the life within and surrounding these ecosystems? I ask you to sit in silent solitude amongst the trees and feel the essence of the forest; or hold the hand of a lover, friend, child or stranger in the desert night and recognise the significance of the land and sky; or let the clean, cold water of a pristine mountain stream wash over you and feel renewal within; become connected to nature, and you will know that you must take responsible care of our planet home. Encourage others; create a snowball effect, and with the spreading appreciation of nature, knowledge of, and concern for the environment will be enhanced. Passion is infectious and inspiring. Positive action will ensue.

“It has become appallingly obvious that our technology has exceeded our humanity.” Albert Einstein.

We are the intelligent species. Taking responsible care of the Earth that sustains our every need is simply common sense.

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As the polar ice shelves recede due to Climate Change, will our only Polar Bears be those confined in zoos? For those who don't accept scientific data and predictions relating to human-induced Climate Change as fact, take a good look at life in your backyard and beyond, and ask yourself "can I afford not to live more responsibly, just in case they are right? Can I die peacefully when my time is up, knowing I have selfishly lived beyond my means at the expense of Earth's creatures and my great-grandchildren's basic survival requirements?"

I ask you to read this post out loud, slowly, and hear your own voice voice my views. Read this to your child. See if you can gather the inspiration to inspire others, and together as individuals we can collectively make a positive difference by simply making responsible everyday choices.

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My previous Blog Action Day posts

2008 Poverty

2007 The Environment

#59 A change in direction

2009-01-24T05:24:00.007+11:00

My nature blog is two years old. I have learned a lot in this time, and I also feel I have made a worthwhile contribution to raising the vital subject of environmental awareness within our society.

I am at a stage in my life when I am ready for change. I wish to become actively involved in the community by way of volunteer work helping elderly people, and helping to preserve or restore native habitat. In order to undertake these projects, I will have to make changes to my life. These changes will involve my time, and physical and emotional energy. Therefore, some of my leisure activities will have to be curtailed - my Hunter Valley Backyard Nature Blog will be one.

As nature is a vital part of my everyday life, I will continue to post up my nature observations, interactions and experiences, in my journal blog Snippets and Sentiments. I hope to update my journal blog a few times every week, and I would find encouragement and inspiration if regular readers of my nature blog were inclined to visit my journal blog.

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One local observation that I made recently, which I am pleased to be able to share, is that of the Christmas Orchid (Calanthe triplicata) .

Unlike many of our terrestrial orchids, Calanthe triplicata is an evergreen, which forms bushy clumps. It has large, pleated, thin-textured, dark green leaves, to 90cm x 18cm. It has sturdy scapes (flower stems), to 1.5 metres tall, which carry up to 40 white flowers, to 3cm across, crowded near the top.

The flowers have widely spreading segments, a lip which is deeply divided into four lobes, and also a long basal spur. Flowering occurs between October and February in moist to wet shady sites in rainforest and other moist to wet forests in NSW and Queensland.

I found these plants in the rainforest of Barrington Tops National Park. It was the first time I have found them flowering, and they were spectacular.

Calanthe triplicata - Christmas Orchid

Rainforest habitat of Calanthe triplicata

Perhaps I will get back to continue this blog, but in the meantime, readers will find my nature observations and photographs at Snippets and Sentiments.

Sincere thanks to all those other nature bloggers, and readers who contributed via comments and emails, who have taken an interest and encouraged me. Thank you especially, to those who have offered corrections and asked questions.

Regards,

Gaye.

#58 Christmas beetles get busy

2008-12-21T18:40:00.003+11:00

Christmas Beetles are busy passing on their genes at this time of the year, and I am particularly pleased with the series of images I captured of one species in action.

Over two days in mid December, I found Black Nail Beetles (Repsimus manicatus) in numbers on a couple of my Callistemon shrubs. With a ladder, and a good dose of patience and a healthy sense of discovery and humour, I searched for mating pairs, and was rewarded with good views of the entire act.

Black Nail Beetles (Repsimus manicatus) are so called

because the elytra (wing covers) resemble long black

polished fingernails

Adult beetles emerge during the early to mid summer period from the soil, hence the common name of "Christmas Beetles". From Family Scarabaeidae, there are approximately 34 species of Christmas Beetles distributed throughout Australia, most commonly in the high-rainfall coastal areas of eastern states.

Life Cycle of the Christmas Beetle

The life cycle extends over one or two years, depending on species. Eggs are laid into soil or compost in the spring and early summer. Females are capable of laying between 20 and 40 eggs each. Newly hatched larvae feed on organic matter in the soil, and older larvae feed on organic matter and/or roots. Ref: Dept Primary Industries, Queensland.

The larvae have a distinctive 'C' shape and are often called curl grubs. In late winter/early spring fully-grown larvae move close to the surface and hollow out a chamber in which they pupate. Pupation lasts several weeks.

After pupation the new adults must wait in the soil for suitable conditions, usually when the soil is softened by rain, allowing them to dig their way to the surface. In very dry conditions the beetles cannot burrow to the surface, and die in the soil. In flooded conditions they will drown. Ref: Dept Primary Industries, Qld.

The underside of a Black Nail Christmas Beetle as it eats

After emerging, beetles fly a short distance to food plants to feed and mate. The females then return to the soil and lay eggs, although some lay eggs before feeding. Feeding and egg-laying may continue for several days. Adults may live for some weeks. Ref: Dept Primary Industries, Qld.

Adults are voracious feeders and large swarms can rapidly defoliate trees. Although the damage to my Bottlebrush shrubs is evident, it is not extreme, and a light prune will be all that is needed to tidy them up.

Black Nail Beetles ( Repsimus manicatus) copulating.

- notice the distinctive difference in size and

shape of the hind legs of male and female.

The Black Nail Beetle has immensely developed hind legs, with the male having thicker legs than the female. When I disturbed the beetles, they raised back legs in a horizontal posture, presumably to assume a more threatening size as a defense strategy.

It was interesting to note that the Black Nail Christmas Beetles were not attracted to the porch light of a night.

The large hooked back claws are not used in mating,

but for moving about the foliage

This image shows a thick white fluid oozing from

the female's reproductive canal

. . . . . and this image illustrates the shape of the male's

reproductive organ just withdrawn from the female

It might sound like a rather odd pastime, spying on the mating practices of beetles, but what fascinating up-close observations! And all in my garden! This is the first time I have noticed this species of beetle in my yard, so it was a beaut find.

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Christmas is different things to different people. I hope everyone stays safe over the festive season, and has reason to smile. I'd like to send a special "cheerio" to those who might be lonely, alone, unwell, low in spirit, or down on luck.

Seasons greetings from Gaye from the Hunter

#57 A Bird-dropping spider breeds and dies

2008-12-10T11:20:00.004+11:00

Spiders appear in numbers overnight, almost magically, as summer approaches. I am always keen to discover new spiders in my backyard, and to further observe habits of the regulars.

The Bird Dropping Spider is not exactly a regular in my garden; I have only seen two specimens. Last summer I was lucky enough to be able to keep tabs on a mature breeding female.

A Bird Dropping Spider in my garden

I believe the species of Bird Dropping Spider I have found in my Hunter Valley rural garden is probably Calaenia excavata (formerly C. kinbergi) from family Araneidae.

It is no puzzle as to how this odd little spider got its common name; it is a master of camouflage as it rests with legs folded against its body throughout daylight hours looking remarkably like a blob of bird excrement, therefore escaping the attention of predators like wasps and birds.

"The Bird-dropping Spider also uses mimicry of a quite different sort to capture its prey, which consist almost exclusively of male moths. At night the Bird-dropping Spider hangs from the edge of a leaf or twig on a short silk thread, its forelegs outstretched. While doing this it releases a chemical scent (pheromone) that mimics the airborne sex pheromone released by female moths to attract their mates. The unfortunate male moths that are attracted by the spider's deceiving pheromone eventually flutter close enough to the spider to be grabbed by its strong front legs." Ref: Australian Museum Online.

White and brown colouring mimics a bird's dropping

Underside of Calaenia excavata (Bird Dropping Spider)

The female Calaenia excavata's body grows up to 12mm, while the tiny male is only 3mm. Unfortunately, I did not find the male (it is possible he became a meal after mating), but of course it could be easily overlooked.

Egg sacs that I observed were from 8 to 10mm, spherical in shape, brown with black markings, and paper-like in texture. Six egg sacs were constructed over a period of about 4 weeks, and were suspended in a Leptospermum shrub, loosely connected by silk. The female remained with her unhatched egg sacs until she died.

I did not take the effort to observe the nocturnal hunting techniques of this clever spider, so the only time I saw her outstretched legs was when she was at the end of her life. Shortly after I took the following image, the spider dropped from her position to the ground, and was lifeless.

Female Bird Dropping Spider close to the end of her life

Despite checking the egg sacs most days, I did not see the spiderlings emerge and disperse. I did, however, break open an empty egg sac to inspect the interior. A tiny escape hole was evident.

Bird Dropping Spider Calaenia excavata empty egg sacs

These odd, yet remarkable little spiders are not considered dangerous. I look forward to finding more living and breeding in my garden. They are apparently commonly found in citrus orchards, so if you have a couple of citrus trees in your backyard, you have more chance of finding the Bird Dropping Spider than I have.

Esperance Blog has an excellent entry on the Bird Dropping Spider, Calaenia excavata, over the other side of the country.

Spider identification links

Australian Musuem online

Spiders of Australia

University of Souther Qld - Find a Spider Guide

Museum Victoria - Spider identification

#56 Backyard predators

2008-12-04T11:55:00.006+11:00

When we refer to predators in Australia, creatures like raptors, dingoes, foxes and feral cats are first to come to mind, but we will all have predators of a less conspicuous nature in our immediate outdoor living space - birds, lizards, snakes, frogs, spiders and other invertebrates.

Magpies are amongst the most endearing predators to regularly visit my backyard. The Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen) has several races. It is my understanding, (I am happy to be corrected here), that there are 8 variable races in Australia in two major groups (black-backed and white-backed), with wide hybrid zones between them.

As far as I am aware, the only Magpie in the Hunter Valley is the black-backed G tibicen (race terraereginae). With its delightful chortle and playful nature, the magpie is a very welcome visitor to my yard. Not only are they entertaining, but they also play an important role in keeping the invertebrate population under control. With keen hearing, they are excellent predators.

Our backyard Magpie collects grubs

and Wolf Spider for its young in the nest

Other common feathered predators to visit my backyard are Masked Lapwings, Willie Wagtails, Silver-eyes.

During the warmer weather, my backyard is home to many species of spiders. Most are web-builders who wait for their meals to come to them, but there are some predators amongst my local spiders. Most obvious is the Garden Wolf Spider (Lycosa godeffroyi).

Up close, Wolfies can be a scary sight, but they are relatively harmless unless provoked. At night, and on grey days, these fearless hunters can be spotted moving about their environment looking for a meal. I have seen them catch spiders, beetles, and various unidentified invertebrates. They are an awesome predator!

A Garden Wolf Spider tackles a large beetle

I have had the opportunity to watch a few species of lizard hunt in my backyard. Having an Eastern Water Dragon (Physignathus lesueurii) choose to live in my garden for nearly two years, I was privileged to observe his life in detail.

Bearded Dragons (Pogona barbata) and Southern Rainbow Skinks (Carlia tetradactyla) have also spent time living in my backyard. All three lizard species have different hunting techniques.

A Water Dragon catches more than he can handle.

The lizard was not able to dismember the frog,

and can not eat it whole.

Although I have photographed and identified nine species of frogs in my backyard, I have unfortunately not seen a frog actually in the act of catching its prey.

Wasps are efficient predators. Mud Dauber Wasps (Sceliphron laetum) and Potter Wasps (Eumenes latreilli) breed in my backyard most summers. Although they feed on nectar, they prey on spiders and caterpillars to stock their breeding chambers for their developing young.

A Potter Wasp stuffs a caterpillar into a breeding cell

Some ants prey on living creatures. I have observed Green-head Ants (Rhytidoponera metallica) preying on living caterpillars in my garden, but the following picture of one of the "Inch Ants" carting off a live bee was taken in coastal sandy heath in the lower Hunter Valley.

An ant carts off a live, pollen-laden bee

Although I have not observed snakes hunting in my immediate vicinity, I was very fortunate to witness the following scene where a Stephen's Banded Snake (Hoplocephalus stephensii) had just killed a large Peron's Tree Frog (Litoria peronii) in the rainforest of Barrington Tops National Park in the east of the Hunter Valley.

Snake catches frog

So, lurking in your backyard, there could be a variety of predators acting out spectacular hunting and killing scenes. Predators will even prey on predators. The secret lives of our backyard native creatures are fascinating.

#55 The Grey Butcherbird - from hatchling to fledgling

2008-11-26T07:17:00.022+11:00

Taking the opportunity to observe the habits of a pair of Grey Butcherbirds raise their young in the Hunter Valley, NSW, was a fascinating and entertaining experience. I wish to share a series of images by my husband, Grahame, from hatchling to fledgling.

Female Grey Butcherbird settles on her chicks

The Grey Butcherbird (Cracticus torquatus) appears to be a year-round resident of the Hunter Valley. I delight in hearing its joyous cackle, sometimes competing with the glorious tune of its cousin, the Pied Butcherbird.

I considered their nest site an odd choice, resting precariously on a dead sapling that was teetering at 45 degrees. It was totally exposed to the elements, and to aerial predators, without the protection of foliage.

Male offers female a morsel of food

(chicks in nest - 14 Oct 2008)

Male supplies one of 4 youngsters with food -22 Oct 08

Distribution of the Grey Butcherbird is woodland and open forest throughout Australia, excluding hotter deserts and Cape York Peninsular. (ref: Readers Digest Complete Book of Australian Birds). It is a reasonably common bird in rural Hunter Valley where I live.

Both parents feed the young - 14 Oct 2008

The female incubates 3 to 5 eggs for 24 to 26 days. She is fed on the nest by the male, but both parents feed the young. Young fledge in about 4 weeks. (ref: Readers Digest)

The 4 chicks - 28 Oct 2008

The habits of the birds were very interesting to observe at length. Both parents collected and carried away faeces sacs. Following is a series of three images illustrating the collection process:

The young offers his rear-end . . . . .

. . . . a bulge appears as the chick pushes out waste . . . .

. . . . . and the parent collects the sac for removal.

We watched both birds return to the nest with frogs, moths, worms, grasshoppers, other invertebrates, and a dismembered bird or animal. At one stage, the adult male successfully fed a piece of meat and bone, as big as the chick, to one of his brood.

I was amazed at the rate at which both parents returned to the nest with offerings for their young. They are very efficient hunters, perching on a branch, watching the ground, and pouncing.

A frog for one of the four gaping mouths (28 Oct 2008)

1st Nov the 4 chicks are exercising their wings

4 Nov, only 2 chicks remain - the missing two chicks may have fledged, fallen, or been predated

According to some of my reference books, Butcherbirds are likely to nest in the same territory year after year, so we will check out this area again next year in the hope of making further observations.

Note: I recently had the opportunity to observe a bird-banding project in Western Australia. Interested people can read about this rewarding experience on my journal blog, Snippets and Sentiments.

#54 Eastern Brown Snakes in the Hunter Valley

2008-10-20T11:10:00.009+11:00

The highly venomous Eastern Brown Snake is not my favourite creature of the bush, but I feel these misunderstood reptiles deserve a bit of support. In my part of the Hunter Valley, they are dispatched with shovels, roles of hose, moving vehicles, and goodness knows by what other means.

I saw my first living snake of the season last week -

a fine specimen of Eastern Brown sunning itself

Yes, the Eastern Brown Snake (Pseudonaja textilis) is venomous; potentially fatal - but only if a person is bitten. Most bites occur as a result of a person threatening the snake. A snake will generally go out of its way to avoid humans, but humans have created habitat that is to the liking of the snake, hence, humans and snakes will occasional cross paths.

A Brown Snake finds refuge in a roadside

telecommunications pit

The Common or Eastern Brown Snake (Pseudonaja textilis) varies in colour from yellowish brown, brown, reddish brown, greyish brown to almost black. Juveniles bear a black blotch on the head and a black band on the nape of the neck, (and in some areas, prominent narrow black bands on the body).

Habitat: This snake is widespread through subhumid to arid eastern Australia, occupying almost all habitats except rainforests or wet sclerophyll forests and alpine areas.

Land clearing has apparently proven beneficial, as brown snakes seem to be most abundant in agricultural regions. The Eastern Brown Snake is the snake I encounter most (although, still rarely) in the rural area of the Hunter Valley where I live.

The Eastern Brown Snake well camouflaged . . . . .

. . . . . and another well hidden Eastern Brown Snake

eyes off the photographer (me)

Breeding: Clutches of 10 to 30 eggs have been recorded; laid in late spring. A litter may contain both banded and unbanded individuals. Eggs hatch after about eighty days, and hatchlings measure about 27cm. When nesting, this snake utilises any available cover, but is particularly fond of man-made cover such as sheets of metal.

Habits: The Eastern Brown Snake is diurnal (although sometimes nocturnal in hot weather). It relies on keen vision to locate prey which can consist of mammals, birds, lizards, and occasionally other snakes.

The abundance in rural areas is probably due to the presence of numerous introduced mice and rats which provide a valuable food source.

Eastern Brown Snakes are extremely swift, alert and nervous; quick to retaliate if provoked, readily adopting a defensive stance raising its forebody in an S-shape, hissing loudly and striking repeatedly. I have never observed this defensive behaviour, but I have seen it remain motionless in an effort to remain hidden, and flee swiftly.

Ref: "Australian Reptiles - A Photographic Reference to the Terrestrial Reptiles of Australia" by Stephen K. Wilson and David G. Knowles.

Ref: "Australian Reptiles and Frogs" by Raymond T. Hoser.

An unusual sight: an Eastern Brown and a Red-bellied Black (Pseudechis porphyriacus) sharing living space after being washed from winter shelters during the June 2007 Hunter River flood.

A dead juvenile Eastern Brown Snake with

distinctive head markings

I don't normally feature images of dead animals, but many of the snake road-kills in my area are deliberate killings - unnecessary, and often cruel.

I encounter very few snakes during my normal day to day activities in rural Hunter Valley, but following the June 2007 flood, Eastern Brown Snakes and Red-bellied Black Snakes were washed from their winter hides on the river bank opposite my home. I had a fabulous opportunity to observe them.

I also witnessed unnecessary cruelty from humans. Sections of a previous post, I feel, are worth repeating:

If people find a snake inside their home or workplace, wildlife aid people or NPWS should be able to offer advice as to who to contact to have the snake removed and relocated safely. Rural people who encounter snakes would be wise to give the snake space to move on.

Regardless of size or venom toxicity, all species avoid confrontations with humans whenever possible and must be trodden on or otherwise harassed before they resort to biting in self-defense. The primary function of venom is to subdue prey, not to attack animals too large to be consumed.

An Eastern Brown Snake basking in the sun

It is not only unnecessarily violent and heartless to kill snakes, but it is illegal. Snakes are protected. If we hold a healthy respect for these animals, along with a commonsense approach, we can live in the same locality without incident. After all, it is we humans who are invading and changing the snakes' environment, not vice versa.

Note: My journal blog Snippets and Sentiments has evolved into mainly entries telling of my daily rambles amongst nature, which might be of interest to those who visit this nature blog.

#53 Blog Action Day 2008 - Poverty

2008-10-15T06:02:00.009+11:00

When my attention was drawn to the 2008 Blog Action Day topic, “poverty”, I will admit my initial reaction was “it’s too hard”, “I haven’t got time”, “I can’t be bothered”. Eventually, I did take a few moments to consider how I might relate poverty to the wellbeing of the environment so that the post would fit comfortably into my nature blog. But I soon dismissed the concept again.

Last weekend I was happily observing native plants and animals in Werakata National Park, blissfully unaware of the rest of the world. Later, a thought crossed my mind . . . . .

I was exploring the burst of life on a power-line easement that had not been slashed for a year, which allowed time for regeneration. Australia is a developed and affluent nation, and those people who are realistic and environmentally conscious, realise that progress and development comes at a cost - degradation of ecosystems. We are all part of the problem.

But, upon reflection, and with considerable thought, it has occurred to me that poverty also places huge stress on the environment.

We cringe at the sight of the massive run-away environmental degradation developing countries are producing as the rate of urbanisation and industrialisation increases on a vast scale. But do we overlook the link between rural poverty and environmental degradation?

Poor farmers are unable to invest in farm improvements to increase yields. This leads to low food production, which creates more pressure to clear forests or drain wetlands.

A lack of knowledge and/or resources to work and manage their land in a sustainable and efficient manner means over-use of soil and depletion of soil nutrients. Erosion is created. Water is polluted or lost due to improper management resulting in less water for human consumption, stock and crops; this in turn creates lower crop and livestock yields. Result? More hunger – a never ending cycle creating human hardship and environmental degradation.

With the scarcity of food, low-income rural people increasingly rely on forests to supplement incomes or feed their families.

Low-income communities of poor countries around the world rely heavily on forests for direct consumption of wild foods, fuels, shelter and medicine. Centuries past, before the Earth’s human population exploded, the land could give up these basic necessities, and replenish itself. With higher human reproduction and survival rate, the increased demand for food, fuel and housing places unsustainable demands on the environment.

Over-exploitation of wild animals and plants by low-income populations and illegal trade, has put animal welfare and species long-term survival at risk. Illegal bushmeat and exotic pet trade supplement poverty stricken communities, (along with the get-rich-quick-by-any-means brigade, of course).

The Western world is appalled by these barbaric practices, but who are we to deny these struggling people an existence (while we sit down at our dining table to three meals a day with our family) without providing education and the means towards an acceptable alternative?

I do not have any answers. I don’t even have any feasible suggestions to offer. But I do know that it is a global problem, not simply the responsibility of the offending poverty stricken communities of far off countries.

By voicing my thoughts and concerns regarding the environmental degradation produced by the poor farmers of the world, I aim only to create awareness amongst those people who are lucky enough to live an easier existence. Human suffering and environmental damage should be something we all care about, no matter what tiny pocket of the planet it is occurring.

There are world authorities and bodies working on these issues:

International Fund for Agricultural Development [IFAD]

IFAD stories from the field

Food and Agriculture Organisation of United Nations

Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation

8 World leaders discuss "How to Feed the World"

#52 A couple of winter Greenhoods

2008-08-05T08:15:00.001+10:00

The Superb Greenhood really is a beauty. This was my first sighting, but I knew exactly what it was when I spotted it amongst the pine needles in the Watagans State Forest on the southern rim of the Hunter Valley in late July. I found only a single specimen.

Diplodium grandiflora - Superb (or Cobra) Greenhood

Diplodium grandiflora, formerly known as Pterostylis grandiflora, is commonly known as the Superb or Cobra Greenhood. Its flowering period is from May to July.

The habitat of the Superb Greenhood is amongst undergrowth on sandy soil in cool moist gullies. I found my specimen on a shaded grassy mound on the edge of a grove of introduced conifers.

It is a slender plant 15 to 25 cm high with two forms of leaves (ref: Native Plants of the Sydney District by Alan Fairley and Philip Moore). The stem-clasping (cauline) leaves are about 5 cm long and taper to an acute apex from a broad base, while a separate rosette of leaves is often absent at flowering time.

The lower sepals are erect, united in the lower third then abruptly contracting at the broad flat sinus (mouth of the flower) to 2 long points which extend high above the galea (top of the flower).

Back view of the lateral sepals

Stem-clasping leaves of the Cobra or Superb Greenhood

The Midget Greenhood (pictured below) was a great find in winter and spring of 2007 in Werakata National Park near Cessnock in the Hunter Valley. Its flowering period is July to October.

Hymenochilus muticus, Midget Greenhood, was formerly known as Pterostylis muticus. Its habitat is fairly dry open country. All my sightings were in small open patches amongst low scrub.

This orchid species varies from short and robust to about 30 cm tall and rather slender. It has small ovate to lanceolate leaves which are sometimes numerous in a basal rosette. It also has 3 to 8 closely sheathing stem bracts and a similar number of very small pale-green flowers in a spike-like raceme.

Midget Greenhood

The sepals are short and broad and joined for most of their length. They point downward exposing the short irritable labellum which has a thick dark basal appendage turned backwards.

The centre flower has the dark appendage exposed

Rosette of leaves of the Midget Greenhood

Although I haven't done much orchid hunting this year, I hope to get out and discover some more spring-flowering orchids as the warmer months approach.

More of my Greenhood Orchid posts

Blunt Greenhood - Pterostylis curta

Trim Greenhood - Taurantha concinna

Maroonhood - Pterostylis pedunculata

Tall Greenhood - Bunochilus longifolius

Nodding Greenhood - Pterostylis nutans

#51 A summary of my backyard frogs

2008-07-26T09:40:00.010+10:00

I have photographed at least 9 frog species in my backyard, which is pretty amazing for my little 2/3 acre patch on the cleared and over-used farm flats. Here I will give a brief outline of my frog visitors and residents . . . . .

Green Tree Frog - Litoria caeulea - Dec 2007

The Green Tree Frog (Litoria caerulea) is possibly the most recognised of Australian frogs, but unfortunately, populations of the Green Tree Frog have declined noticeably in some areas where it was once common. This is due to destruction or degratation of habitat.

It is found throughout the eastern and northern half of Australia, with adults growing to 10cm in length (larger specimens have been recorded).

Large toe pads makes the Green Tree Frog an excellent climber, and can be found in mailboxes, meter boxes and bathrooms. They seem to have a particular liking for toilet bowls. In their natural environment they take shelter in tree hollows and rock crevices, and will mostly feed at night on insects.

Breeding in summer and wet seasons, the tadpoles grow to about 9cm before metamorphasing. More information on the Green Tree Frog can be found at Frogs Australia Network.

Ornate Burrowing Frog - Opisthodon ornatus - Feb 05

A much more patterned Ornate Burrowing Frog - Nov 07

Ornate Burrowing Frog (Opisthodon ornatus [formerly known as Limnodynastes ornatus]). As illustrated in the two images above, the colour and skin pattern of the Ornate Burrowing Frog, can vary greatly.

Also illustrated in the above photo, the toes of a burrowing frog are adapted to digging. Ornate Burrowing Frogs only grow to 5cm in length, although most adults are smaller than this. The adults I have seen in my backyard have been between 3.5 and 4cm in length, and quite wide in comparison.

This insectivorous frog has a very rapid egg-tadpole-frog cycle, an adaptation to beat the drying out of the breeding waterholes. The Ornate Burrowing Frog is also found in northern and eastern parts of Australia. More information at Frogs Australia Network.

Spotted Grass Frog Limnodynastes tasmaniensis - Jul 07

Note raised fold running from behind the eye to the leg

Spotted Grass (Marsh) Frogs

Note one has a central stripe on back, and one does not

Spotted Grass (or Marsh) Frog - Limnodynastes tasmaniensis, is another burrowing frog, but can be distinguished from the often similarly marked Ornate Burrowing Frog by the raised fold of skin running from behind the eye to the arm, which is always present.

Some Spotted Grass Frogs will have a stripe running down the middle of their back. As illustrated in my two images above, there can be a great variation in the brown/green blotched colour. Breeding males have a yellow throat.

They are found in eastern Australia, usually in swampy areas around ponds and dams, and I have found them in weedy areas around my yard after rain. Breeding takes place from spring to autumn. More information at Frogs Australia Network.

Lesueur's Tree Frog - Litoria wilcoxi - Nov 07

Lesueur's Frog - note small toe pads, and no webbing

Lesueur's Tree Frog (Litoria wilcoxi) was an exciting find on a warm night on my back porch. My images above show the bright colours of a breeding male.

I originally posted this frog as Litoria lesueurii, but a reader has informed me that Litoria lesueurii was split into three species a few years back. Those which are north of Sydney are now Litoria wilcoxi (unless they occur in FNQ rainforests, where they are Litoria junguy). [Thank you Evan for your assistance and interest.]

It can reach 7cm in length, but this one was about 5 or 6 cm, with very long agile back legs. It is found along the central and southern coastal regions of NSW, and in eastern Victoria. More information at Frogs Australia Network.

Peron's Tree Frog - Litoria peronii - Apr 08

Note part webbing, and the yellow/black back thighs

Peron's Tree Frog - Litoria peronii - Mar 08

Note the small pale-green blotches

Peron's Tree Frog (Litoria Peronii) is a reasonably common find in my yard during the warmer months. I have found them up to about 5.5cm in length, but they can reach 7cm.

The colour of this frog varies, and green flecks may or may not be present. Inner and back of thighs are bright yellow flecked with black, the toe pads are reasonably large, and toes are partially webbed.

Peron's Tree Frog is mainly a NSW species and can be found in a variety of habitats. I have found it seeking insects on my patio, in the garage, and resting in damp places around the backyard. More information at Frogs Australia Network.

Tyler's (or Laughing) Tree Frog - Litoria Tyleri - Dec 07

Tyler's (or Southern Laughing) Tree Frog (Litoria Tyleri). I mistook this frog for a Peron's Tree Frog, as it is very similar in appearance. The groin, armpits and backs of the thighs are yellow. The groin and backs of the thighs also have brown mottling (not black like Litoria peronii). This frog can be distinguished from Litoria peronii by its lack of spots in the armpits and gold iris.

It is found in coastal regions from central Queensland to eastern Victoria, but obviously a reasonable distance inland, as all frogs featured on this blog page were found in rural Hunter Valley. More information at Frogs Australia Network.

Broad-palmed Frog - Litoria latopalmata - Jun 08

Broad-palmed Frog (Litoria latopalmata) was another surprise find for me, especially in winter. I discovered it in a thick damp weedy area that I was cleaning up. After removing the weeds, I placed broken bricks loosely covered in mulching hay, and dampened the area, in an attempt to provide alternate shelter.

This frog lives in many habitats including forests, coastal and river floodplains, and woodlands in southern Queensland to central NSW. This 4cm frog has long agile back legs, and long toes. More information at Frogs Australia Network.

Eastern Dwarf Tree Frog - Litoria fallax - Jun 08

Eastern Dwarf Tree Frog, or Eastern Sedgefrog (Litoria fallax) is an extremely cute little frog I found in my fern garden.

Adults are between 2.5 and 3cm in length, the toes are partially webbed, and a raised fold extends from behind the eye to the armpit.

Its range extends from northern Queensland (excluding Cape York) to southern NSW, along the coast and further inland. More information at Frogs Australia Network.

Leaf Green Tree Frog - Litoria phyllochroa - Apr 05

Leaf Green Tree Frog (Litoria phyllochroa). This is only a tentative identification, as I only had the one sighting, and my photograph is very poor. I found it while weeding, and relocated it nearby very quickly.

This small green frog with yellow toes was about 2cm long, but they can grow to 4cm. Its habitat is vegetation near a watercourse or dam, from coastal southern Queensland to coastal southern NSW. More information at Frogs Australia Network.

***** ***** *****

I am always delighted to see, or hear, frogs in my backyard or immediate surroundings, but I rarely go looking for them - I just find them during the course of my day. I do, however, check out the back patio in the warmer months after dark, as frogs will feed where insects congregate.

I try to keep poisons and fertilisers to a minimum, and always have some clean water source around the yard. I am hoping to observe more frog species in my surroundings, and will add them to this list.

Frogs Australia Network list of Hunter Valley Frogs

#50 It's fungus season !

2008-07-18T11:30:00.009+10:00

Australia's main fungus season extends between mid autumn and mid winter, so is nearing an end this year. But smaller numbers of fungi will keep appearing in moist conditions right through til late spring, and of course, it is possible to stumble upon fungi throughout the entire year. I'm always on the lookout for these fascinating life forms.

Here, I will outline a brief guide to the different types of fungi that are commonly found, in an attempt to shed some light on the structure of fungi for novices.

When I'm wandering bush trails, or picnicking in parks or enjoying public gardens, I can often be seen down on all fours peering up the skirts of mushrooms. That's because it is necessary to check out the fertile surface of the fungus to determine in which category it belongs.

The major part of a fungus is not the "mushroom" or "toadstool" we see in the field, but the largely unseen microscopic threads, called hyphae, weaving their way through the substrate (soil, wood, or other dead or living organisms). A mass of hyphae is called a mycelium.

The mycelium of a fungus is responsible for nutrition and producing fruit bodies. The fruit body is the fungus we see in the field, and its main function is to produce spores for reproduction.

Spores are produced on the fertile surface of the fungus which varies greatly and can take the form of gills, pores, spines, folds, clubs, gelatinous blobs, and more.

The Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria) is a

poisonous introduced fungus

Agaricus

The agarics have gills, are usually fleshy, and have a cap covering the spore-bearing layer. This is indeed the stereotyped structure we would call a "mushroom", but not all agarics have stems, and can vary tremendously in structure, size and habit.

Orange Fan (Anthracophylum archeri) and Splitgill (Schizophyllum commune) are common examples of gilled fungi that differ from the typical "mushroom" appearance.

The fertile surface of a bolete is made up of pores

Boletus

Boletes are "mushroom-like" in general appearance, but instead of gills, the fertile surface consists of pores. The fleshy cap contains tubes which are downward facing and open at the base. These openings are called "pores". The spores will be released from these pore openings.

A spine fungus, Hydnum repandum

Spine fungi

The fertile surface in the group is made up of spines or teeth instead of gills or pores. Some are mushroom-shaped (as Hydnum repandum above), either fleshy or tough and leathery, while others form closely adhering crusts (eg Mycoacia subceracea) on the undersides of logs and branches.

A stemless bracket fungi belonging to

Polyporus group

Polyporus

This group includes the leathery, tough or woody brackets, as well as mushroom-like fungi and crusts that have pores or woody gill-like plates instead of the soft gill or pore structure of agarics or boletus.

Some will have stems (eg Red-staining Polypore, Amauroderma rude), but many will consist of a bracket or fan-shaped woody body adhered to dead or living wood (eg White Punk, Laetiporus portentosus). Some brackets will be thin, whilst others will be many centimetres thick.

A puffball breaks the surface of bitumen

Puffballs

There are several groups contained in the puffball fungi category. Soft, simple puffballs are common in grasslands and forests, with some preferring compacted areas like roadside verges. Spores are contained in a "skin" appearing as a ball-like structure. When mature, the outer skin punctures, breaks, or falls away to expose the spores to the elements. Spores are distributed either by wind, rain, running water or animal movement.

Variations within the puffball group are Earth Stars, which have a double layer of tissue, the outer layer of which splits to expose the central puffball containing the spores. There are also hard-skinned puffballs and stalked puffballs.

A very pretty "coral" fungus

Coral and club fungi

Coral fungi include simple or branched clubs as well as large complex coral-like structures. Most species grow on the ground, and the fertile tissue covers all but the stem.

I have seen coral fungi growing in soil ranging from swampy, moist rainforest, alpine grasslands to dry woodland, in just about all the colours of the rainbow.

Plectania campylospora, Brown Forest Cup

Cup fungi

The cup fungi form a large group that contains species in which the fertile layer is cup-shaped or flat to convex. The spores are contained on the inner or upper surface of the fungus.

Cups can be stalked as Brown Forest Cup (Plectania campylospora), or ground-hugging as Aleurina ferruginea.

A bird's-nest fungus, Cyathus stercoreus

Bird's-nest fungi

These are tiny fungi fruiting bodies that are typically shaped like a bird's nest. They produce their spores in hard-skinned packages, called peridioles, which are exposed to the weather when the top of the "nest" breaks open. Generally, bird's-nest fungi grow on herbivore dung or rotting wood, and have the spore-containing peridioles distributed by raindrops splashing them out of the "nest".

Two of my bird's-nest fungi observations can be viewed here: Nidula emodensis and Cyathus stercoreus.

Auricularia cornea is a jelly fungus

Jelly fungi

Jelly fungi are gelatinous in texture and appearance. They have a very high water content, and are usually found on wood or as parasites of other fungi. The fertile tissue covers the greater part of the surface in convoluted forms, but only the lower surface of bracket forms.

Toothed Jelly Fungus, (Pseudohydnum gelatinosum) is a bracket-like fungus, and has firm spines on the under surface which collapse into a gelatinous blob with age. Other jelly fungi take the form of odd blobs and folds, often spreading in rows along rotting timber.

Aseroe rubra, Starfish Stinkhorn, and "eggs"

Stinkhorn fungi

Stinkhorns are a distinctive group of fungi having bizarre forms accompanied by strong, unpleasant odours. The fruting bodies develop in egg-like sacs that are ruptured by the spore-bearing receptacle as it rapidly expands at maturity.

The spore-bearing gleba is a foul-smelling brown to greenish-brown slime that is eagerly consumed by flies and other insects, which in turn, distribute the spores.

These strange and often offensive fungi will pop up in mulched gardens and lawns, creating an intriguing display. I have catalogued some of my stinkhorn finds here.

As you can see, fungi are not just your average "mushroom". Observing and studying fungi can be a very rewarding and fascinating hobby. It is predicted that the majority of Australia's fungi have not yet been studied, so it is quite likely that amateur fungi enthusiasts could play an important role in recording new species.

Further reading:

Australian Fungi Blog

Australian National Botanic Gardens - Fungi

Fungimap

#49 Jumping with frogs

2008-04-21T06:49:00.010+10:00

Summer in the Hunter Valley has been wetter than recent summers, and it was very encouraging to hear the delightful frog chorus every night, knowing that breeding was taking place in my immediate surroundings. I am not experienced in identifying the various calls all competing, so I have to rely on chance meetings to discover just what species are living around me.

And I have been thrilled to encounter several frog species which have previously escaped my attention. One of the most common sightings has been the cute little Peron's Tree Frog.

Notice the pale green flecks of the Peron's Tree Frog

Peron's Tree Frog - Litoria peronii

Peron's Tree Frogs have bright yellow with black mottling on the armpits, groin and back of thighs which is a key identifying feature if you are fortunate to glimpse this as it moves around. Its back is rough-textured, but varies in colour from almost white to a pale green-grey, through shades of light brown, to reddish brown.

It is recorded that the Peron's Tree Frog will change its colour depending on the light exposure, temperature, moisture and other factors. I have not been lucky enough to observe this.

All Peron's Tree Frogs I have seen have been flecked with pale irridescent-like green irregularly shaped spots over the back, although research indicates that this feature is not always present.

It is an excellent climber with large toe pads, and part webbing. I found the frog in the following photo, on my glass door on top of a spider's web which did not appear to lessen its grip. Notice the yellow with dark blotches on the inner and back thigh.

Peron's Tree Frog is an excellent climber

The Peron's Tree Frogs I have seen around my backyard have all been small slender frogs between 30 and 45mm long. Most reliable records indicate that they can grow up to 50 or 60mm in length, but I found a freshly killed 70mm plump frog in the Barrington Tops rainforest which I believe was a Peron's Tree Frog.

The call is a distinctive "chuckle" consisting of between fifteen and twenty rapid descending notes. There is a link to its call here.

I discovered two Peron's Tree Frogs, active and seemingly healthy, in a thick batch of liquid manure as I used the smelly home-made fertilizer concentrate yesterday. I was astonished to find the frogs in such an unlikely habitat, but I took advantage of the opportunity to photograph the usually hidden thigh colouration before I relocated them to a damp spot where they would not be disturbed.

Distinctive thigh colour of Peron's Tree Frog

Peron's Tree Frog is mainly a NSW species, but its range does extend marginally into adjoining states. Although often occuring in association with rivers and similar large bodies of water, this species breeds in the semi-permanent water bodies that form after rain, in summer. Throughout summer, there were puddles in the paddock adjoining my yard that would have suited their breeding.

Tadpoles are an irridescent green or golden-yellow with a high crested tail. Now that I am aware of this feature, I will search for the tadpoles next breeding season so that I can observe and photograph them.

Most specimens I have found, have been out on wet nights. During the day, they take shelter in protected spots.

A Peron's Tree Frog takes cover as I approach - Note: a reader has informed me that this is not a Peron's Tree Frog, but is Tyler's (or Laughing) Tree Frog - Litoria Tyleri

I observed the following scene in Barrington Tops National Park on the eastern rim of the Hunter Valley: I inadvertently disturbed a Stephen's Banded Snake, Hoplocephalus stephensi, after it had presumably killed a large Peron's Tree Frog. As I lay spread out on the rainforest floor photographing fungi, this scene was played out just metres from me.

The snake was small, and the frog was large. I would have been thrilled to see the snake consume this meal, but it slid into a hole at the base of the tree where the kill took place. However, I felt privileged to witness such an amazing sight in the battle to survive in the wild.

Stephen's Banded Snake with dead frog

There are still frogs about as the warm nights are replaced by a chill, so rug up the kids and take them frog spotting with a torch at night after rain. Discourage children from handling frogs as they have permeable skin which absorbs toxins - just enjoy their activity.

#48 Spiny-cheeked Honeyeaters breeding

2008-04-07T20:24:00.001+10:00

After a short break from posting nature blogs, I'm keen to start sharing my nature observations once again. As I haven't been able to get out into the bush much lately, I've had to be content to enjoy nature happenings in my backyard. This family of Spiny-cheeked Honeyeaters was nesting in a friend's garden, so it was a great opportunity to observe these cheery birds at length.

The black-tipped pink bill is an identifying feature

of the Spiny-cheeked Honeyeater

Spiny-cheeked Honeyeaters (Acanthagenys rufogularis) do not appear to be common in rural Hunter Valley, preferring the drier, more vegetated country. The nesting I am featureing here was located at Sandy Hollow on the western rim of the Hunter Valley where the landscape mainly consists of rocky sandstone outcrops with cypress and eucalypt scrub, and scattered farms and vineyards.

This couple was raising their family of two in the lower branches of a mature introduced conifer.

We've also encountered Spiny-cheeked Honeyeaters in the sandy semi-arid scrubland of the Pilliga Forests of Northwest New South Wales, as well as residential areas of northwestern NSW towns.

According to my reference books, the Spiny-cheek is found in all Australian states except Tasmania, but avoiding the tropical north, the far south-western corner of Western Australia, and the far south of the east coast.

A parent stuffs a grasshopper

into the gaping mouth of one of the two hatchlings . . . . .

Notice in the picture above how the flimsy grass cup nest is secured to twigs by spiders' web. The main breeding period is between July and January, with a clutch of 2 or 3. Although it is the female who incubates the eggs, both male and female feed the chicks. We watched both parents presenting the youngsters with insects.

I commented earlier on the "cheeriness" of these birds. Although they are noted for their agressive nature and noisy song, I find their musical notes cheery, and their character bubbly.

. . . . . and then the chick presents its rearend

for disposal of a faeces sac . . . . .

. . . . . and then warms the chicks

The Spiny-cheeked Honeyeater is grouped with the wattlebirds, but its wattle is confined to fleshy extention of the gape. Adults have a patch of whitish stiff feathers behind the gape; in juveniles these are yellow.

This attractive bird with its cinnamon-buff bib, blue eye and black-tipped pink beak is easily recognised in the bush, and can often be flushed from roadside vegetation. It is also likely to be heard before it is seen, once its song is recognised.

Nesting season can extend well into autumn if late summer rain has been substantial - this nest was photographed by my husband, Grahame, in March of this year following an unusually mild and wet summer in the Hunter Valley. Keep an eye and ear out for these vocal birds of the dry inland; they are delightful.

#47 Autumn settles in.....

2008-03-10T09:30:00.017+11:00

Summer in the Hunter Valley has been unusually wet and mild in comparison to recent years. I'm not complaining; the drought has finally broken, and the Valley has not suffered any devestating summer wildfires.

Although summer temperatures have been pleasantly mild, there is still a distinct changing of seasons as autumn settles in. Shorter days, crisp fresh morning air with a hint of chill, and picturesque rural scenery blanketed in morning fog and dripping with dew.

Autumn is fungus season

Autumn days are perfect for wandering bushland, parks and reserves, observing and enjoying natures events. Late autumn and early winter is fungus season, when weird and beautiful fungal fruiting bodies emerge from their substrate in order to produce spores and establish new colonies.

Fungi season

Puffballs and stalked fungi are not "just mushrooms and toadstools"; they are the Earth's recycling agents returning dead organic matter to the soil, therefore continually fertilising the soil with nutrients. Without fungi, the Earth would be littered with dead plants and animals, and the soil would be barren.

I have been fascinated by macrofungi for several years and I'm always excited when a new fungus season rolls around to reignite my enthusiasm. I have created a blog, Australian Fungi, where I am recording my fungi finds and photographs. New entries on my fungi blog have slowed down recently, but I hope to again be posting regular updates soon.

Many fungi display fabulous colours of red, purple, yellow or orange; some have dainty skirts and others have amazing forms resembling coral, furry beasts, cups or matchsticks; there are tiny delicate mushrooms just millimetres high, and monstrous creations larger than dinner plates; some are mildly fragrant while others smell downright foul; and while some fungi are more beautiful than the prettiest blossom, others are just plain dull. But I find all fungi fascinating, and I can often be found sprawled out on the ground checking them out in detail.

A tell-tale sign of a new fungus

breaking and lifting the earth as it emerges

An oddly shaped puffball pokes through compacted gravel - it is not beautiful, but is certainly appealing. Some fungi even push their way through bitumen

Along with fungi popping up on lawns and gardens, there is also likely to be another strange organism appearing; slime moulds. They also come in an astounding range of colours and shapes, changing form to produce and shed spores.

I am not aware of any damage caused by slime moulds, so don't be alarmed if you find such a growth amongst garden mulch or leaf litter. I have featured a few of my slime mould finds in blog #22 and #41 - if you're not familiar with slime moulds, check these weird things out.

A slime mould in its creeping stage in my garden

Another exciting autumn happening, is the flowering of many of Australia's ground orchids. Once bitten by the orchid bug, like the fungus bug, there is no escaping the irresistable attraction these wonders of nature project.

Many areas of the Hunter are covered in dense grasses as a result of the unusually wet summer, which may hinder some orchids, but I am hopeful of finding some on the natural bush tracks of the Hunter Region Botanic Garden, and national parks.

Denis Wilson from The Nature of Robertson, is an avid orchid hunter, for discovery, study and photographic purposes and has been a real encouragement to me and my endeavours. He has an extensive documentation of his orchid finds here.

I'll be out and about throughout autumn looking for the delicate and often hidden terrestrial orchids. Here is a link to my orchid finds to date.

A Chiloglottis species photographed April 2007

Invertebrate activity is interesting all year, with many species coming and going, metamorphosing, reproducing and dying - it is a fascinating field of observation.

Invertebrates

Autumn dew and fog will leave countless spiders' webs sparkling, strung across fences, trees, shrubs and grasses, advertising their position. I take advantage of this spectacle to check out what spiders might be lurking in my backyard formerly unnoticed. Along with the spiders, there will be egg sacs, and possibly still some hatchings to study.

Crisp autumn mornings are also ideal for spotting those normally fast and elusive dragonflies as they dry and warm their wings before flight. Butterflies might also be another beaut find as they warm their wings.

A chilly dragonfly in my backyard in May 2007

And of course, there will always be intersting bugs to discover in the garden, at any time of year. I spend a lot of time working in my garden creating habitat for small animals and insects, and I never cease to be amazed at the variety of creatures that live in and visit my garden. I have bookmarked another nature blog, Lepidoptera Diary, featuring moths, butterflies and other backyard invertebrates - others interested in bugs and stuff should also find it an excellent read.

An autumn visitor - I am presuming this to be a parasitising wasp breaking into the nursery chambers of a mud dauber wasp in order to parasitise the larvae

And an ant carries off a pollen-laden bee

Autumn is my favourite season, with its cool crisp mornings and evenings, warm pleasant days, and awakening of many of nature's treasures as others prepare for dormancy.

#46 The sad face of a Green Tree Frog

2008-02-15T04:37:00.014+11:00

Green Tree Frogs with their ho-hum expression, warty throat and long, clumsy-looking digits, are absolutely delightful creatures. But I haven't always been so endeared to these large green amphibians that used to glare at me from the toilet bowl several times a day.

There was a time, I am embarassed to admit, that I wouldn't use the toilet unless my 7 year-old son was at home to retrieve this fellow from the bowl. And then he'd be back again; and again. Indoor toilets are no guarantee that you'll never be surprised by this fellow either. If they want to get in, they'll get in.

But how could you not love this face?

Amphibian means 'two lives'. Most amphibians are charactised by a distinctive aquatic larval stage called the tadpole. These tadpoles metamorphose into the adult form and then usually leave the water in which they developed. Typically, tadpoles develop in fresh water, and amphibians in general have a low tolerance of saline conditions.

Most larval amphibians possess gills, while adults are air-breathing and possess lungs. All are cold-blooded.

With the exception of toads, frogs usually have a moist, highly permeable skin, and therefore, in order to avoid dehydrating must live in moist places. Even desert species are usually found close to water, and are usually only active after rain.

Green Tree Frog - Litoria caerulea

Tree frogs have astonishingly adhesive toe pads which enable them to climb all types of surface including glass. The Green Tree Frog is probably Australia's best known frog and is found throughout the eastern and northern parts of the country.

Green Tree Frogs sometimes have white irregular spots

This docile frog is one of the biggest frogs (up to 10cm), and although found in many types of habitat, it is usually found around human habitation in mailboxes, meter boxes, downpipes, bathrooms and toilets. In their natural environment they hide in hollow tree limbs and rock crevices.

I evicted this frog from the toilet at my parent's house and found him a nice damp spot by the 'frog pond', but surprise, surprise, he found his way back to the toilet.

Green Tree Frogs, Litoria caerulea, are nocturnal and will emerge from their daytime sleeping hide after dark to feed on insects. It will take anything that fits into its gaping mouth, often shoving it in with its hands. Occasionally I find one on my back porch taking advantage of insects attracted to the outside light.

As well as calling to attract a mate during spring and summer, Green Tree Frogs call at other times, especially during or after rain. Its native predators are snakes, lizards and birds.

Frogs' eyesight and hearing

Frogs need good eyesight as they usually only eat prey that is alive and moving, therefore they generally have large, bulging eyes. They are located on top of the head to allow a wide field of view. As frogs are nocturnal, their night vision is generally well developed.

A frog can protect its eyes with a transparent 'eye-lid' called a nictitating membrane. This transparent membrane permits the frog to see underwater.

The transparent eye membrane

A frog hears through a circular eardrum (the tympanum) located on each side of its head behind the eye. Sound enters the ear via the tympanum which vibrates back and forth. Fluid-filled sacs of the inner ear trigger neural signals which travel to the brain.

The tympanum (eardrum) behind the eye

Frogs make their calls with the help of one or two pouches of skin called vocal sacs. Sound is produced when air rushes over the vocal chords on its way from the lungs into the vocal sacs. The vocal sacs work like echo chambers to amplify the sound.

Conservation

Unfortunately, I don't hear the call of the Green Tree Frog in the Hunter Valley as frequently or in such numbers as when I was a child. Populations are thought to be declining due to habitat modification (land clearing, introduction of invasive weeds, filling of ditches and drains), and pollution.

The thin, porous skin of frogs and tadpoles makes them sensitive creatures. Through this skin, they absorb chemicals from the air and water, therefore, in areas where water or air pollution has occurred, the local frog community will be affected and there are likely to be very few frogs.

Well, come on in - no need to knock

In order to create a healthy environment in which to encourage frogs to live in your garden, you will need to supply clean water such as a small pond with some surrounding vegetation for protection; keep the use of chemical fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides to a minimum; and control pets.

Frogs will need help and consideration from all of us (industry and residential) if they are to thrive as they should.

The night-time frog chorus of several frog species in the paddock adjoining our house-yard following prolonged periods of rain over summer in the Hunter Valley, is an encouraging sound indeed.

#45 A snake by a swamp

2008-01-26T06:29:00.001+11:00

I rarely see a snake when I'm out walking, and when I do, it's usually the tail disappearing into the undergrowth beside my feet. Such a sight usually scares the daylights out of me, so I was thrilled to encounter a snake basking on a wide track adjacent to a swamp recently. "Thrilled" because the reptile was easily noticed from a safe distance so as not to produce the usual initial response of fear.

Swamp Snake at Shortlands Wetland Centre

And it was a snake that I had previously not seen, making the observation even more exciting. The Swamp Snake (or Marsh Snake, or Black-bellied Swamp Snake), Hemiaspis signata, is apparently relatively common in the Hunter region.

Only a small species, it averages 50cm in length, although longer specimens have been recorded. Their preferred habitat is, as their name suggests, marshy country and wet forests. This species will aggregate in large numbers in areas of suitable habitat such as rubbish dumps.

The Swamp Snake is mainly diurnal in habit and principally feeds on frogs and skinks. Mating occurs in late autumn, winter and spring, with live young being produced in late summer. They are found along the east coast of New South Wales and Queensland.

Two colour forms occur: brown to olive-brown, and dark olive-grey to black. A narrow white, cream to yellow streak extends from snout or eye to side of neck. This was the feature that allowed me to identify the snake. It is not regarded as dangerously venomous.

An up-close view of the yellow face streak

My Swamp Snake sighting was at Hunter Wetlands Centre, formerly known as Shortland Wetlands Centre. 45 hectares have been preserved as a wildlife refuge with approximately 250 species of native birds and animals having been recorded.

The project of rehabilitating a degraded wetland was undertaken in 1986 and has progressed into a valuable conservation area with the added aim of increasing understanding of and appreciation for wetlands through communication, education and public awareness.

It really is a fabulous place to take the whole family to enjoy nature up close, and my husband and I have purchased an annual family pass and are making good use of unlimited visitation.

The Swamp Snake disappears into the grass

An unexpected encounter with a snake can be a frightening experience, but if you stand still at a safe distance, you might be rewarded by the chance to observe these beautiful and sleek, but misunderstood, creatures.

#44 A disappointing bird tale

2008-01-18T09:00:00.000+11:00

My husband, Grahame, has recently taken up the hobby of bird photography. This has resulted in not only obtaining a close up view of some of Australia's beautiful birds, but an introduction into some of the intricate details of their lives. [Note: all photos in this entry are by Grahame.]

Female Rufous Whistler at Broke in the Hunter Valley

We found a nest of Rufous Whistlers (Pachycephala rufiventris) at a reserve at Broke in the Hunter Valley, and sat back, relaxing, observing these busy little birds raising their family.

The nest was a small, flimsy, cup-shaped construction made from grasses or very fine twigs, sitting in a low fork of a very young eucalypt. I have since read that the nest is secured to the tree fork with spider's webs, and close inspection of photographs shows this ingenious building technique on the right-hand side of the 4th picture here.

A back view of the female Rufous Whistler

There is a marked difference in appearance of sexes of the Rufous Whistler. The male is unlikely to be confused with any other bird with its black face and breast band, white bib, grey wings and back, and rusty brown/orange belly. The female, although more subtle in colour, is definitely not a drab bird with its attractive streaked underparts.

Male and female are both about 17cm long, and rather stocky. Their call is loud and cheery, and once we were accustom to their tuneful song, it was easily recognised.

Distinctive colours of the male Rufous Whistler

With the nest low in the tree, we felt privileged to have an excellent unobstructed view into their lives. Clearly, there were two young in the nest with eyes barely opened. Mum and dad left the chicks unattended while they both flew off hunting for insects, and we were amazed at the array of food they offered the gaping mouths of their offspring.

Mum returns with a large winged insect.....

.....and places it well down the throat of the chick

It is likely that the Rufous Whistler is affected by land clearing, but it appears to be quite capable of adapting, making use of available trees and shrubbery in farmland and residential areas. Now that we have learned to recognise its call, we have heard the Rufous Whistler in several locations.

According to records, the Rufous Whistler is found throughout Australia except in Tasmania and the most arid of environments. I have not seen these active little birds on the ground, other than to bath; and as with most birds, it is an entertaining sight to watch them bathing.

A male Rufous Whistler comes down to bath.....

.....and he really gets down and wet

But this bird tale has a disappointing ending: we returned 6 days later to observe the progress of the Rufous Whistler family only to find the nest empty. Although the chicks apparently do not spend a long time in the nest, we observed the male and female at length without sighting the two youngsters.

I can only presume that the chicks were taken by a cat, goanna or another bird. If they ended up as a feed for a goanna or native bird, that's life in the wild, but too often cats are the cause of native animal loss. Fortunately, the Rufous Whistler's status is secure.

As two broods are often produced in a season, we plan to revisit the nest site. Observing the nesting activities of our native birds from a reasonable distance so as not to disturb or stress them, provides a fabulous opportunity to learn more about our wildlife. Learning about our wildlife increases awareness and respect for the value of preserving or reproducing habitat as human persuits encroach further on the lives of our native birds and animals.

#43 On reflection . . . . .

2007-12-27T06:33:00.001+11:00

When I started blogging my nature observations 12 months ago I hoped my enthusiasm wouldn't wane, turning this project into a chore. It hasn't. It's been a valuable exercise in researching, collating information and formating material into readable articles that might be of use or interest to other people. Not only have I learned a lot during my year of blogging, but I have come in contact with some wonderful people who have enriched my life.

Initially, I hesitated, unsure if I had the perseverence to produce worthwhile entries on a continuing basis, but on reflection I can see that it has been a project that has evolved as I've found my way.

Reflections - Williams River, Hunter Valley

My original aim remains; that is, to encourage others to care for nature both close at hand and on a broader scale. If people are not aware of the beauty and value of the diverse ecosystems that we live amongst, they are hardly likely to put any effort or sacrifice into preserving them. I am attempting to create this awareness (albeit on a small scale), which should in turn promote care.

I aim to highlight the nature we live amongst every day but hardly notice. The native animals and invertebrates that live in, or visit, our backyards may well be common creatures, and even annoying in some situations, but they are all part of the big picture.

If we take an interest, gain some understanding and adopt an attitude of respect and tolerance, we can all play a helpful role in improving the health and wellbeing of the natural environment; an environment on which we rely for our every need.

And there are so many exciting surprises and pleasant encounters to experience amongst nature that I am hoping to entice others to take a closer look around them. By sharing my observations and my genuine love of nature, I hope to touch other people's lives in a positive way.

***** ***** *****

My backyard has also evolved over the past 12 months. Due to the strong hot northwesterly winds, and the drought, I abandoned my vegetable patch and transformed the space into an extensive raised bed for native plants.

Together, my husband and I prepared the earth, and I have planted dozens of native ground-covers, shrubs and trees which will eventually form a layered vegetation belt.

I've added mulch, bird bath and ground water, piles of rocks and some logs. Magpies and Spur-winged Plovers are already taking advantage of the abundance of invertebrates, and I've noticed lizards scurrying about.

Part of my new native garden.

My herb garden is constantly changing and is a beaut place for grasshopper nymphs, spiders, wasps, native bees, beetles, caterpillars and skinks. My grand-children love to play in my herb garden where there are always interesting bugs to discover.

In a sheltered corner on our back patio is my fern garden which is home to an Eastern Water Dragon. It is too difficult to put into words the joy this entertaining little dragon has brought to my life. He will eventually wander off in search of a lady dragon, but for now, he is great company.

My fern garden harbours plenty of invertebrates for my resident Water Dragon to snap up

My Water Dragon, Jacky, lounges around in a pot

Besides managing to produce weekly entries for my nature blog, I have recently created a new internet space, Snippets and Sentiments, where I intend recording personal stories that provide a glimpse into how I view the world around me. This journal will contain some controversial and sensitive subjects, but I will keep it family-friendly. It is already proving beneficial to me. As nature is a vital part of my life, many entries will deal with the nature that surrounds me at home and on my travels. My Australian Fungi Blog suffers periodic standstills, but I will add to it when the inclination strikes me. I have hundreds of fungi images and observations to share.

I'm jotting down this post surrounded by nature in World Heritage Listed/Wilderness/Wild Rivers national park rainforest, and as dusk moves in and the air becomes still, birdlife takes over this little green clearing and forest noises claim the evening.

Barrington rainforest

Throughout the year I've been fortunate to see several reptiles in and around my yard including Jacky Dragon, Bearded Dragon, Water Dragon, Rainbow Skinks and Blue-tongue Lizard, along with Long-neck Turtles, Eastern Brown Snakes and Red-bellied Black Snakes. My backyard frog observations have included Green Tree Frog, Spotted Grass Frog, Ornate Burrowing Frog, Lesueur's Frog and Perons Tree Frog.

And new additions to my backyard bird list include Rainbow Bee-eaters and the Restless Flycatcher. I also have some beaut spider encounters to post up next year, and I'll share some of the lovely places around the edge of the Hunter Valley where I go nature-watching.

The beautiful Rainbow Bee-eater

I hope many readers will find something of interest amongst my entries throughout the coming year. May everyone find joy in nature.

#42 Under the mistletoe

2007-12-21T05:02:00.000+11:00

According to Pagan history, mistletoe was considered a sacred plant because it was one of the few evergreen plants in the northern hemisphere winter. The custom of kissing under the mistletoe began as a fertility ritual, so be careful who you kiss under the mistletoe this Christmas.

Mistletoes in the Hunter Valley are primarily late spring and summer blooming plants and they can make a pleasant sight when most other native flowers are fading.

Probably Dendrophthoe vitellina, flowering early December

Although I am reasonably confident with my identifications here, I am not positive, so if any readers who are more experienced than I disagree with my identifications, I'd be most appreciative if you could let me know.

What are mistletoes?

Mistletoes (family Loranthaceae) are hemiparasites which rely on host trees for water and mineral nutrients, but perform photosynthesis in their own leaves.

Many advanced genera have species that are host-specific and have leaves and a general appearance closely resembling those of the host tree. Host-specificity is a feature of mistletoes of the drier open forests and woodland; those of rainforests are rarely host-specific.

A close association has developed between mistletoes and certain small birds which act as pollinating and seed dispersal agents. The Mistletoe Bird (Dichaeum hirundinaceum) feeds on mistletoe berries and insects. The seeds pass rapidly through the bird and, when excreted, adhere by the remains of the sticky pulp to a tree branch. Permanent attachment of the embryo to the branch can occur soon after.

Dendrophthoe vitellina

This is a spreading to slightly pendulous epiphyte with conspicuous yellow to orange flowers from July to January. I am slightly unsure of my identification of this species, but it is a common plant in the Hunter Valley mainly flowering from late spring through early summer.

It can make a spectacular display and is found mainly on Myrtaceae (which includes eucalypt and melaleuca) in open forest and woodland as well as roadside verges.

Leaves are greyish-green, elliptic, rounded at the apex, and with a prominent midvein. Flowers are an attractive yellow with red tip and 25 to 40mm long and borne in short dense clusters. PlantNET has more information.

A close-up of flowers of Dendrophthoe vitellina

Dendrophthoe vitellina is an attractive flowering plant

Mistletoes have a somewhat bad reputation as 'tree killers', but this is misleading. As it is in the best interests of the mistletoe to have a healthy host, it is not the object of this parasitic plant to kill its host tree. Due to land clearing to make way for agriculture, industry and residential development, fewer host trees are available, resulting in a higher per-tree distribution of mistletoes.

Amyema cambagei - Sheoak Mistletoe

This mistletoe is epiphytic on Sheoaks (Casuarina spp), especially the River Oak (Casuarina cunninghamiana), and its leaves are long and terete, mimicking those of its host.

It is a spreading to pendulous plant with crimson flowers 15 to 21mm long. There is more information on this species at PlantNET.

Flowers, fruit and leaves of the Sheoak Mistletoe

A close-up of the flowers of the Sheoak Mistletoe

There was also a broad-leaf mistletoe growing on this tall casuarina tree, but I was unable to get close enough to it to photograph it.

Amyema quandang - Grey Mistletoe

Amyema quandang var. quandang is a pendulous epiphyte with a general greyish appearance as the leaves are covered with short whitish matted hairs.

Flowers are 16 to 20mm long, green beneath grey hairs, with red stamens and style, splitting into 5 free petals. It grows on Acacia species in drier woodland, and flowers from August to December. I photographed this one mid September west of Singleton in the Hunter Valley. There is more information at PlantNET.

Delicate flowers and grey foliage of Grey Mistletoe

Fleshy pulp surrounding mistletoe seed

Drooping mistletoes are coming into flower in open forests and roadside verges in the Hunter Valley now, and the very pretty rainforest species Amylotheca dictyophleba should also be bursting into bloom. I'll get out and about and post up more mistletoes shortly.

***** ***** *****

Christmas is different things to different people. I hope everyone stays safe and has reason to smile - and I'd like to send a special cheerio to those who are lonely, unwell or low in spirit.

Seasons greetings from Gaye

#41 More slime moulds

2007-12-19T06:15:00.000+11:00

Late spring and early summer rain has seen some fascinating slime moulds fruiting in the Hunter Valley. Here I will feature three that I've found recently. As I lack expertise, I will not attempt to identify them, but where possible I will give a similar species that interested readers might like to compare them with.

Bunches of tiny white tubes on a fallen twig

in Barrington Tops National Park

Slime moulds have an interesting life cycle and habits. I have provided brief and easy-to-read details of these strange life forms in my nature blog entry #22.

Fine white tubes

This slime mould resembles Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa, with the common name of Coral Slime. I found these clusters of tiny, white hollow tubes in mid November on a dead twig following heavy rain on the rainforest floor of the southern section of Barrington Tops National Park on the eastern fringe of the Hunter Valley.

The delicate 'tentacles' were up to about 5mm in length and felt soft and flexible to touch. Although small, the clumps of brilliant white tubes made a beautiful and unusual sight.

A close-up of the clusters of white tubes

Apricot pillows

This slime mould resembles Lycogola epidendrum, common names Wolf's Milk Slime or Toothpaste Slime Mould.

Massess of these spongy apricot to pink cushion-like structures up to 10mm diameter were spread over an area of about half a square metre on wood-chip mulch at the Hunter Region Botanic Gardens following rain in mid November 2007. A few rows of similar slime moulds also grew on timber garden edging.

They were soft and slightly velvety to touch and had no discernible odour. Individual fruiting bodies were at different stages of their life cycle, so it was interesting to see the variation. I peirced some so as to investigate the interior, and a pale-orange substance oozed out that was of thick but 'runny' consistency, resembling busted blisters

There were also remains of a dark-brown shell-like bases of aged specimens. This slime mould was a particularly exciting find.

Spongy light-orange pillow-like fruiting bodies

Thick orange liquid oozes from pierced fruiting bodies

Slime mould fruiting bodies turn grey with age and split to ooze a substance that could be described as looking like vomit

Shell or bowl-shaped black or dark-brown bases remain

White baubles

These shiny white baubles were a beaut find in the New England National Park in May of 2007. Although not in the Hunter Valley, the habitat was very like some of the alpine areas of Barrington Tops.

Growing on dead wood and only about 1mm diameter, these pretty slime mould fruiting bodies were a lucky find.

The creeping stage is shown on the top right

A mass of unjoined white slime mould baubles

Slime moulds are usually, but not always, small and often insignificant, but I would class them as extremely fascinating and odd life forms - well worth a close inspection. You're likely to find them following rain. Sometimes they will pop up in your garden, but as far as I am aware, they will do your garden or pets no harm.

#40 Summer in the Hunter Valley

2007-12-06T09:18:00.001+11:00

Summer in the Hunter Valley is dominated by dry heat, strong northwesterly winds and wild electrical storms. The threat of bushfire is always present and water is scarce. Native animals appear to cope with harsh climatic conditions more efficiently than we mere humans, who are pampered by modern conveniences.

A green tinge to the clouds usually indicates hail is imminent - a view from my front yard

My long term memory often doesn’t serve me well without written observations, but I don’t recall damaging hail storms and destructive winds from my childhood in the Hunter. These extremes are common summer occurrences now.

Last summer we didn’t sustain any storm damage, but over the previous two summers our home sustained considerable damage due to hail and wind.

A hailstone from our backyard in February 2005

Fiery orange sunsets are a feature of the summer sky in the Hunter Valley, courtesy of dust from open-cut coal mines and bushfire smoke. The strong northwesterly winds whip up grit and other pollutants from exposed mine sites, and along with soil stripped from tilled farm paddocks, a brown haze commonly hangs on the horizon throughout summer.

Nature Watch

Recording local weather and nature observations can be an interesting exercise. I have not been consistent with my nature watch recordings other than noting rain and temperature. During last summer my yard received 83mm rain over 23 rainy days, with January by far the driest and hottest month.

Those people interested in making a longterm study of nature observations of their property or area would do well to read the Nature Watch Diary of an enthusiastic Hunter Valley resident, where you are sure to gather inspiration.

Summer backyard invertebrates

Spiders will be stringing out their webs all around the yard. I find that some need culling, particularly venomous Redback Spiders, (Latrodectus hasselti), that set up home amongst the kids’ play areas and on the outdoor furniture. But I tolerate, and even enjoy, most other spiders, unless there is an over abundance of a species.

If you wish to remove a spider from your home without harming it, I suggest placing a transparent cup over the spider and sliding a stiff piece of paper or thin cardboard under the trapped intruder. This will then allow you to safely relocate it outside.

Don’t be fooled if the spider acts dead when released, as this is usually just a ploy. If you wish to move a spider in a web from an inconvenient location like the clothes line or verandah, the soft bristle end of a broom is a good tool for relocating it to a fence or some shrubbery.

This can be a daunting exercise at first, but once it is an accomplished skill, you’ll be able to confidently relocate all sorts of crawlies that venture indoors.

A St Andrews Cross Spider, (Argiope keyserlingi), took up residence in my backyard a few weeks ago

Every summer I find different spiders in my backyard. They make fascinating observation subjects. Most people think I’m a bit weird when I attempt to explain the attributes of spiders, but spiders need not be feared and should not be exterminated en masse. Like every other component of an ecosystem, spiders are vital to the complex interconnected web of life.

Christmas beetles are also beginning to emerge, buzzing around outdoor lights and creating havoc around the barbecue on warm nights.

These 2.5 to 3cm beetles, often with beautiful and colourful patterning on their elytra (wing coverings) are from genus Anoplognathus in the Scarab family. The eggs develop into large crescent-shaped grubs in the soil, feeding on decaying organic matter or roots. They pupate in the soil and adult beetles emerge during early to mid summer.

This Christmas Beetle's life was cut short as it was tackled by a Garden Wolf Spider, (Lycosa godeffroyi), on a warm night on my back porch recently.

The beetles can be known to cause considerable damage to the foliage of eucalypt trees, but as there are few eucalypts in my immediate surrounds, I have not seen this defoliation.

Crickets are also making their presence known with their chirpy night-time summer songs. To me, cricket songs are an iconic summer night sound, one which I enjoy. My first sighting this summer of a Striped Raspy Cricket, (Paragryllacris combusta), was short-lived as it was snapped up by my resident Eastern Water Dragon, (Physignathus lesueurii).

Dragon eats cricket

Grasshoppers and cicadas will also be singing up a storm in a frantic effort to attract a mate. Only some grasshoppers sing, and their song is normally not as loud as their cricket cousins. But the shrill call of cicadas can be almost deafening when in large numbers.

Cicadas spend most of their life underground. The adult female will lay eggs on a tree branch. When the eggs hatch, the larvae will drop to the ground and burrow underground, feeding on tree-root juices. When the cicada larva is full grown, it will crawl from the ground and shed its skin (exoskeleton). And then it's time to call up a mate.

A cicada on a shrub in my backyard

Depending on the species, the underground nymph stage of the cicada can last from nine months up to 17 years. In contrast, their above-ground adult life lasts only a few weeks.

More than just bugs

Of course, there is much more to summer in the backyard than mating invertebrates.

Most birds will have nested, and parent birds will be teaching chicks to fend for themselves. Some of the common Hunter Valley backyard birds to be seen caring for their youngsters are Australian Magpies, Superb Blue Wrens, Crested Pigeons, Galahs, Zebra and Double-bar Finches, and of course, some pesky feral birds.

Magpies are amongst my favourite backyard birds, with their joyous early-morning carolling, friendly disposition and entertaining character.

A Magpie youngster checks out the photographer

Some adult magpies swoop 'intruders' to their home range when their chicks have hatched. This can be a frightening experience for children and adults alike. Our local Council places warning signs at swooping sites during the breeding season, but there is little that humans can do about the magpie's defensive behaviour other than avoid the area, or wear a hat or helmet when walking or bike-riding.

Frogs are another backyard animal that make themselves heard during summer as males call for a mate. The Hunter Valley has recently been fortunate to receive excellent rainfall, which has prompted a night-time frog chorus at my place. You might be lucky enough to see one taking advantage of the flurry of insects on the back verandah at night.

How can anyone not love a face like this.....

Summer is the season for insect and spider breeding, so there will be many animals and birds feasting on the abundance of invertebrate life in all corners of our yard. Without these insects, our wildlife would be in real strife.

#39 Where are they hiding?

2007-11-26T12:27:00.000+11:00

Insects are consumed in vast numbers every day by birds, mammals, reptiles, and other insects and invertebrates. To avoid becoming part of the food chain for long enough to develop and reproduce, an insect must be able to carry out its life with a certain degree of 'invisibility'. Just as humans employ methods of camouflage in warfare, many insects have evolved to blend into their surroundings in an attempt to hunt and remain undetected by prey.

Who is hidden, whilst in the open, amongst the leaf litter?

Here's the answer - the 20mm flightless nymph Gumleaf Grasshopper, Goniaea australasiae, blends in perfectly with its eucalypt leaf-litter habitat

Grasshoppers metamorphose gradually, moulting several times before their wings are fully developed. If the nymph is to survive to adulthood and reproduce, it must remain undetected by numerous preying invertebrates and vetebrates while feeding and growing.

Various methods of camouflage

Camouflage is a survival strategy practiced by both predators and prey. Insects are experts at camouflage, and I never cease to be amazed by the impressive disguises that I discover in the insect world.

Colour, shape, texture and patternation are the most obvious means of disappearing into the surrounding environment. An insect that mimics the colour and form of its substrate can often only be detected through the closest scrutiny.

The Gumleaf Grasshopper camouflaged in the first picture is a perfect example of an insect evolving to resemble the colour and structure of components of its immediate surroundings to avoid detection. But a grasshopper nymph that lives in tussocks of grass must take a different form.....

Can you find the 40mm flightless grasshopper nymph that extends from the top of this picture to below the centre?

Here it is, but it's even well camouflaged at close inspection, appearing just like a stick. Notice how the hind legs project at an angle giving the impression of further twigs.

As well as using colour and structure to blend into their surroundings, many insects go one step further by adopting behaviour that also mimics the movement around them. For example, stick insects and mantids will often move in a rocking motion when detected, to resemble a leaf or twig blowing in the gentle breeze. If you've encountered these creatures, you will be aware of this impressive display of deceipt.

Insects depending on camouflage remain motionless for long periods of time, some, like praying mantids, then striking at lightning speed when prey passes, unsuspectingly, right by the camouflaged creature. And some insects that resemble dead foliage will drop to the ground if disturbed, as if they are the real thing being dislodged from a plant.

This 50mm moth blended well into the mulch of my garden, but in its natural surroundings of leaf-litter, it would disappear almost entirely.

Some insects are flattened to look like leaves, others are elongated like twigs, and some even imitate objects like bird droppings, dead foliage, flower petals, and undesirable poisonous or nasty-tasting insect species. Some invertebrates will imitate other species in the ultimate game of deception. As some predators will only eat live insects, some invertebrates will even play dead. Ingenious methods of deceipt and camouflage employed by insects are endless.

The importance of insects

Insects suffer from an image problem: many, perhaps most people, consider insects as nasty, annoying, insignificant beasties to be squashed, sprayed or otherwise disposed of.

Regular readers of my nature blog will be aware of my fascination and respect for the flying and crawling invertebrates that make their homes in my backyard. I didn't always feel appreciation or regard for hairy spiders or scary creepy crawlies, and I am still occasionally faced with challenging (read, frightening) encounters of the bug or spider kind. But commonsense and a healthy dose of caution usually guide my actions.

"In Australia insects make up 75% of the known species of animals with the majority of these unique to Australia. Despite this diversity and abundance, many species are known only from a name and a specimen. Our lack of knowledge about insect habitats and ecology is a major barrier to their conservation. Without this knowledge we are unaware if species are threatened with extinction from habitat destruction or other threatening processes. Many insect species may already have been lost without us becoming aware that they existed at all." [ref: Australian Museum]

The stick-shape of the praying mantis provides means of camouflage amongst the twigs of a shrub

Insects out-number any other taxonomic group on Earth, and perform many important tasks. Scientists proclaim that most other life forms, like amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals would become extinct if insects disappeared, because of the domino effect that would occur in the food chain.

Pollination of plants and crops is a major role of insects. The vast majority of pollinators are flying insects. In many places, it is likely that the essential service of pollinators could be at risk due to habitat loss and pesticide use. Although pollination is a by-product of nectar-feeding and pollen-collecting insects, it is essential to the continued existence of many plants. It is estimated that two-thirds of all flowering plants depend on pollinating insects for this service.

Although some insects are pests to humans and their pets, stock and crops as they carry disease and consume or damage plants, pest or harmful insects are a minority.

Insects and other arthropods aerate the soil, and control insect and plant pests; they also decompose dead materials, thereby reintroducing nutrients into the soil. Burrowing invertebrates such as ants and beetles dig tunnels that provide channels for water, benefiting plants. And insects provide food for insects and other arthropods, reptiles, birds and mammals.

What are arthropods?

Joint-legged animals without backbones are called arthropods. Arthropods make up over 75% of the world's animal species, and include animals such as insects, crustaceans (eg. crabs and lobsters) and arachnids (eg. spiders and ticks). The largest group of arthropods are the insects. Other arthropods include centipedes and millipedes.

Some spiders also find it necessary to employ the art of camouflage. The Garden Wolf Spider (Lycosa godeffroyi) positions its hind legs over its abdomen to break up the round shape when it is caught out during daylight - an effective camouflage technique, don't you think?

Arthropods have a jointed body, an exoskeleton (external skeleton), and at least six jointed legs. Characteristics of arthropods, along with features which distinguish insects from other arthropods are explained in this link in an easy-to-read fashion.

A large Garden Orb Spider (Eriophora transmarina) takes advantage of decayed flowers to disguise its shape, remaining motionless, but in full view of potential predators - it looks safely camouflaged to me

And this caterpillar is not only camouflaged by its green colour and flattened form matching the leaves, its outstretched posture takes the imitation to another level (notice it even has a pointed tip)

Humans generally view insects and arachnids as pests and vermin that need to be controlled. They usually are not considered as something to be preserved. But insects play a major role in functioning ecosystems. They must be preserved because of their inherent values but also because we need them for human survival.

Insect cocoons, egg-sacs and pupae are also expertly camouflaged - but that's another story

Insects are masters of disguise and deception; if you can't run, you've got to hide. These complex methods of escaping danger and mounting surprise attacks are fascinating to observe. Insects, spiders and other invertebrates are vital components of all ecosystems. While taking care to stay out of harm's way, a little tolerance and understanding of bugs and insects will go a long way toward maintaining or increasing the health and diversity of your environment.

All these photos of camouflage examples except the Gumleaf Grasshopper were taken in my backyard, so I'm pleased to say that my garden has a healthy and diverse invertebrate population.

#38 Singleton's Grey-headed Flying-foxes

2007-11-18T06:26:00.000+11:00

There comes a time in a person's life when, despite personal difficulties and business occuring at the time, one feels an overwhelming responsibility to stand up and be counted. It was not hard to count those standing up for the bats at this week's Singleton community meeting to discuss the unwelcome local flying-fox population - there were only four, amongst a crowded auditorium of about 350 townsfolk.

Grey-headed Flying-fox in Burdekin Park, Singleton

[This picture by my husband, Grahame]

Perhaps there were more who supported the plight of the unwanted mammals. There is no shame in declining to stand up and be counted amid such adverse and hostile surroundings. The behaviour of the majority of the crowd was, however, shameful.

I was appalled by the raucous interruptions and mob mentality that was displayed as the first of the flying-fox supporters attempted to have her say as she was handed the microphone. Her question was: "so you want to kill the bats simply because they stink?" A powerful roar of agreeance erupted from the crowd and she found it difficult to continue speaking over the shouting.

The female bat supporter's suggestion of erecting 'sails' over the war memorial which is soiled by bat excrement, was laughed off. It was obvious the majority of the crowd were not prepared to listen to plausible suggestions - they were at the meeting to demand action in the form of culling the flying-fox population.

A mother caring for her baby in Burdekin Park

[This picture by my husband, Grahame]

Grey-headed Flying-Foxes (Pteropus poliocephalus) first arrived in Singleton to 'camp' in Burdekin Park on the New England Highway about 7 years ago. Burdekin Park was (and still is) indeed a beautiful park; a passive recreation area which I feel sure most of the town would appreciate.

Burdekin Park's history

In 1878 Singleton's Council Clerk received a package of trees from the director of the Botanic Gardens Sydney, for the purpose of planting a Recreation Ground near the court house. The parcel of land on which Singleton's first court house was situated had previously been a privately owned Market Reserve. Amongst the trees donated and planted were oaks, Norfolk Island pines, acacia, Morton Bay fig and flame trees.

The reserve was named Burdekin Park after the Burdekin family who were the original European owners of the land. History says that Burdekin was the most hated man in Singleton for decades.

A WWI memorial was built in the park in 1925. The Singleton Historical Society recieved the use of the former Council Chambers in 1963. Band recitals have been a feature at Burdekin Park for over a century, and the Singleton Band Centenary Music Shell was opened in 1978.

It is, therefore, only fitting that the townspeople should hold pride and interest in Burdekin Park.

An orphaned Grey-headed Flying-fox pup

sucks on a dummy as a comfort replacement

for its mother's nipple

But no one told the bats that Burdekin Park was the people's park - the animals' survival instincts kicked in and they set up camp and carried on their life's task of surviving, thriving and ensuring the survival of their species.

Flying-fox habits and habitat

Flying-foxes, or fruit-bats, eat nectar, pollen and fruit, spending the day in a 'camp' and flying off at dusk to feed. They roost in the branches of large trees in forests or mangroves, seldom more than 150km inland and often in such secluded locations as islands.

The social behaviour of Grey-headed Flying-foxes (Pteropus poliocephalus) associated with camping and breeding follows a fixed pattern. Females in advanced pregnancy segregate from the males and each bears a single young in October after mating in March or April.

The young animal, which has no fur on its undersurface, is carried by its mother (even to the feeding ground) for 4 to 5 weeks, by which time it is completely furred. It is then left in the camp at night and suckled when the female returns. Mothers locate their young by their distinctive individual odours. Young can fly when 8 to 10 weeks old and forage independently from the age of about 12 weeks. [Ref: "The Australian Museum Complete Book of Australian Mammals" edited by Ronald Strahan.]

The four Flying-fox species found in Australia occur mostly in northern and eastern temperate and sub-tropical coastal areas. They are nomadic animals; their movement patterns and local distribution are determined by variations in climate and the flowering and fruiting patterns of their preferred food plants.

A Hunter Valley wildlife carer feeds an orphan

Loss of natural habitat and food supply in New South Wales and Queensland due to land clearing, and human culling in the past (both legal and illegal), has rapidly reduced numbers of some species, including the Grey-headed Flying-fox.

This loss of natural habitat and the creation of new habitat and year round food supply in suburban areas over the last 30 years, has meant changes have occurred in Flying-fox distribution. The Grey-headed Flying-fox has adapted its behaviour to take advantage of new habitat and reliable food supplies, and is indeed an intelligent and resourceful animal.

Flying-foxes prefer blossom, nectar, fruit and occasionally leaves of native plants, particularly eucalypts, tea-trees, grevilleas, figs and lilly pillys. They will also take the fruit of cultivated trees, particularly during periods of shortage of their preferred food. They prefer to feed close to where they roost, so most feeding is done within 5 to 15 kilometres from the campsite. However, they can travel up to 50 kilometres (100km round trip) in search of native nectar, blossom and fruit. [Ref: Department of Primary Industry, Victoria.]

Ecological importance

Flying-foxes play a major role in the regeneration of native hardwood forests and rainforests by pollinating as they feed and dispersing seeds as they move throughout the forest.

Through this role they provide habitat for other flora and fauna species and add value for other forest uses such as hardwood timber, honey and native plant industries. [Ref: Department of Primary Industries, Victoria.]

An orphaned Grey-headed Flying-fox pup receives some attention from its carer after a feed

Conservation status

The Grey-headed Flying-fox (along with the Spectacled Flying-fox) is listed as threatened under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. They are considered Vulnerable due to a significant decline in numbers as a result of loss of their prime feeding habitat and secluded camp sites.

Both species are potentially at risk of extinction. This is due to a slow reproductive rate, the relatively long time for males to become sexually mature, and the high rate of infant mortality.

An orphaned pup stretches and flaps its wings attached to her adoptive mother. The world is a better place with these selfless caring people. I was horrified to learn that this young wildlife-rehab couple from the Hunter Valley have been verbally abused on several occasion by Singleton residents for saving orphaned baby bats and injured adult bats.

Singleton's action towards the flying-foxes

Since the Grey-headed Flying-foxes set up camp in Burdekin Park in 2000, Singleton Council has spent a considerable amount of money attempting to move the bats on.

In 2002 and 2003, Council used electronic noise control, water sprays from elevated platforms, lighting, and mechanical noise over a long period of time. In 2005, a local resident received Council approval to operate a modified motor mower for a few weeks in an attempt to encourage the flying-foxes to relocate.

Council applied for permission to use the chemical product "D-Ter" which, according to Council, is an aluminium-based spray which causes uneasiness in the bats. Permission to use the spray was granted, but the conditions attached made the cost prohibitive.

Singleton Council is in the process of discussing their proposed application to the Department of Environment and Climate Change for a licence to cull the flying-foxes by means of fire-arm. Financial assistance from the state government has also been applied for with the view to implement the "D-Ter" chemical deterrent. Bat numbers vary throughout the year, with a reduction in winter, and the population swelling during birthing season. [Ref: an authority from Singleton 'Parks' Department.]

Singleton community meeting

As previously mentioned, I attended the meeting on 14 November 2007 organised by locals who wish the flying-foxes gone. The overall tone of the meeting was an overwhelming "its time to shoot the bats".

Meeting organiser began by telling the audience that [quote] "flying-foxes had killed just about every rainforest in Australia; that the DECC had lied, and that conservationists have misinformed the community; that community values had been over-ridden by DECC; that the bats had made him ill through time spent in the park, and that community health issues regarding the flying-foxes were more serious than people believed; that it would only be a matter of time before a human death occured as a result of disease from the bats, and that the government would be responsible".

This presentation was met with loud applause and shouts of "filthy vermin", "just shoot them", "get the army in for target practice", "Council has squandered enough of rate-payers' money". I felt ashamed to be a Singleton resident, was on the verge of tears, and contemplated walking out.

The motions put forward and recorded, in order, were:

* Bring the army in to shoot the bats

* Council to be requested to reverse their decision not to trial the chemical spray "D-Ter"

* Lock up Burdekin Park from the public until the bats are gone; and place signage

* Seek information and progress to reduce the protection status of the Grey-headed Flying-foxes

* Remove small and damaged branches and canopy of the trees to reduce roosting capability.

Suggestions from bat supporters that were put forward were NOT recorded, and all were howled down by the crowd. The suggestions were:

* Erect 'sails' over the war memorial that is being soiled by bat excrement

* Plan and construct appropriate out-of-town habitat for future flying-fox colonies

* Undertake a properly researched and implemented relocation to the edge of town or other appropriate location.

Mention was made by meeting organisers of a small colony of flying-foxes camping near the Singleton hospital and of concerns regarding the possible danger they represent to the operation of the Westpac Rescue Helicopter. If this is the case, I believe expertise should be applied to remedy this situation without delay.

I had many concerns and questions that I had intended to approach, but it was impossible to speak more than briefly due to the intimidation and rudeness of the crowd.

Here is a link to a site containing much useful information on Grey-headed Flying-foxes.

Flying-foxes hanging around in Burdekin Park

I spent most of yesterday at Burdekin Park in an effort to obtain a realistic idea of exactly what effect the bats are having on the park and park users. I chatted to wildlife-carers who rescue and rehabilitate flying-foxes; I watched families and couples picnicking and admiring the bats; I saw people photographing the bats; I answered questions from youngsters who asked me intelligent questions regarding the bats; I heard of a wedding that was photographed in the park recently; and I sat on the grass for nearly 2 hours completely undisturbed by the flying-foxes carrying on with their lives.

But meeting organisers want to have Burdekin Park closed off to the public until the bats are gone.

I am not actively involved in animal rights, or wildlife rescue or rehabilitation. I am a citizen who is simply attempting, against odds, to raise awareness and promote interest amongst the community to the plight of our native flora and fauna.

As humans degrade and destroy the habitat and food sources of our native wildlife, we must take responsibility for our actions, and actively consider the needs and value of our native species. We are the care-takers of our planet Earth - let us care.

#37 Purple and yellow peas

2007-11-09T10:03:00.001+11:00

Most Hunter Valley spring-blooming wildflowers have wilted and will now be producing seed. But some late bloomers that are still putting on a show are Helichrysum (everlastings), Melaleucas (paperbarks), some lilies and violets, along with many fabulous rushes and grasses. The 'peas' have also nearly finished flowering, but here are six beauties that I photographed earlier in the season:

Swainsona galegifolia - Smooth Darling Pea

There are about 28 species of Swainsona growing naturally in NSW, most of which are plants of the drier western slopes and plains. They have mauve to purple flowers and pinnate leaves (a compound leaf with leaflets on a common stalk).

I found these attractive plants on a sheltered, damp, rocky embankment on the Gresford to Dungog Road. Their flowering period is October to December, but I photographed these flowering plants in mid September.

Pinnate leaves of Swainson galegifolia

It is a flimsy bush to about 1 metre tall that sways in the breeze. Racemes of several large pink to mauve flowers on short stalks make a showy display. Swollen, leathery, hairless seed pods are lime-green often tinged with red, and 25 to 40mm long with a beak up to 15mm long.

There is more information on Smooth Darling Pea, including NSW distribution, at PlantNET.

Seed pods and stamens of Smooth Darling Pea. Swainsona species all have 9 stamens united and 1 free

Gompholobium latifolium - Broad-leaf Wedge-pea

Gompholobium are shrubs with leaves in sets of threes, or occasionally pinnate. Pods are round and inflated, flowers are usually yellow and have ten free stamens.

Large bright yellow flowers of Broad-leaf Wedge-pea

Broad-leaf Wedge-pea is an erect shrub generally about 1 metre in height with completely yellow, large flowers 25 to 30mm long. Flowers are borne on short stalks in leaf axils (between stem and leaf stalk) of the upper leaves. Leaves are in groups of three, flat or with edges slightly curved under, 30 to 50mm long and 3 to 5mm wide.

I found these Gompholobium shrubs growing in sandy heath amongst blackbutt forest at Heatherbrae in the lower Hunter Valley, flowering early in October. Their flowering period is August to November.

There is NSW distribution and more details on Broad-leaf Wedge-pea at PlantNET.

Leaves of Gompholobium latifolium are in groups of 3

Glycine tabacina

Glycine tabacina does not appear to have a common name, which is not all bad, as common names can tend to be confusing. Glycine are week twining plants with pale blue-mauve flowers and leaves divided into three leaflets. As far as I am aware, there are still unnamed species of Glycine in the area, so I am not 100% sure of my identifications.

Growth habit and habitat of Glycine tabacina

This slender trailing plant does not appear to have a rampant habit. Small purple flowers are in long erect racemes of few to several flowers. Leaves are 3-foliate (in groups of threes), to 70mm long and 20mm wide, and on short stalks with the stalk of the centre leaf noticably longer (this is an important identifying feature). There is more information at PlantNET.

Leaves of Glycine tabacina, with the stalk of the centre leaf noticably longer than that of the 2 lateral leaves

Calyx is only sparsely hairy, which is another identifying feature of this Glycine

Bossiaea scolopendria

Bossiaea is a genus of 42 species of shrubs with possibly a quarter represented in the Hunter region. Flowers are yellow with red centres; stamens are all united into a tube; fruit is a flattened pod, and stems are often flattened.

Bossiaea scolopendria also does not appear to have a common name. The leafless, flattened stems of this species are strong and erect and may grow up to 1 metre tall and 10mm wide.

Flowers are 10mm long, solitary along the stems, with stalks 1 to 3mm long. The pod is almost without a stalk. I found these plants flowering in sandy heath amongst eucalypt and banksia woodland at Heatherbrae in early October. It was a striking plant with its long flat leafless stems that I had breviously associated with Western Australian flora.

Its flowering period is August to October. There is more information at PlantNET.

Flat stems of Bossiaea scolopendria

Glycine clandestina - Twining Glycine

This slender trailing plant is usually found climbing over fallen branches, around grass stems or on low bushes. Apparently there have been three varieties recognised, all of which could occur in the Hunter Valley.

Leaves consist of 3 shortly-stalked leaflets which vary greatly in their size and shape. All 3 leaflets are on short and equal stalks or the terminal leaflet is stalkless (this is an important identifying feature).

Pale pink to mauve flowers are borne on slender stalks in loose racemes in the upper leaf axils. The plant is usually covered in small, but dense, backward-pointing hairs.

Mauve flowers and hairy calyx of Twining Glycine

I found this plant flowering in September and October, twining rampantly amongst and over swamp-side vegetation in the lower Hunter Valley. It can flower at any time of year. According to PlantNET, Glycine clandestina is a widespread species.

Picture showing leaf configuration and twining habit with stems of Twining Glycine twisting around sedge stalks

Templetonia stenophylla - Leafy Templetonia

The genus Templetonia appears to be represented by only about 11 species, all endemic to Australia. It is charactised by having alternate leaves which are mostly simple or reduced to scales. Pods and seeds are compressed.

Templetonia stenophylla is a small straggly ground hugging shrub with ridged stems to 50cm long. 1 or 2 10mm yellow and brown flowers grow from leaf axils. Leaves are simple, narrow, linear from 10 to 70mm long with a short recurved tip.

Pod, leaf, flower and stem characteristics of Templetonia stenophylla

I found several of these plants well hidden amongst grass on a clay hillside near Muswellbrook in the mid Hunter Valley, flowering in late September. There is more information at PlantNET.

Leafy Templetonia

I hope my photos and observations will help others identify some of their finds. The 'pea' flowers are from family Fabaceae, which is the third largest in the plant kingdom after the daisy and orchid families. The Fabaceae family is represented by about 90 genera and up to 900 species in Australia, while they are sparsely represented in some other countries.

Because of their ability to fix nitrogen, they are useful plants. Their role is to increase soil fertility and provide protection for plants. They often germinate quickly and are short-lived. In the absence of fire they tend to disappear from the understory in about 15 years.

PlantNET provides a simple key for Fabaceae species.

My native plant index contains a list of all pea flowers (with links) that I have featured in my blog. As time progesses, other plant families will be represented also.

#36 A colourful bush and urban spider

2007-11-05T09:57:00.000+11:00

Although the St Andrew's Cross spider is apparently a common species, I have not often encountered it, so when a female chose to occupy a shrub in my backyard, I was extremely pleased to have the opportunity to observe some aspects of its life.

Unfortunately, the spider disappeared shortly after, following a wild storm with very heavy rain. But she left two egg sacs intact.

Argiope keyserlingi - St Andrew's Cross Spider

Argiope keyserlingi, St Andrew's Cross Spider, is found in the east of Australia in Queensland, NSW and Victoria in a variety of habitats. A mature female has an ornate yellow and red, reddish-brown or black striped abdomen, with irregular yellow markings and spots on the underside.

The palps (pedipalps) of female St Andrews Cross Spider

An adult female can have a body length of up to 20mm, while plain brown males have a body length of 4 or 5mm.

Web of St Andrew's Cross Spider

According to Christian history, the Apostle St Andrew, was crucified on an X-shaped cross rather than the traditional crucifixion cross. The St Andrew's Cross Spider was named after this reference in relation to the X-shape formed by the spider's outstretched legs at rest.

An adult female will build a vertical orb web up to about 1 metre in diameter in low shrubs or other low vegetation. She will decorate the web with white silk 'zigzags' forming a 'X' or part thereof. This decoration is sometimes known as a stabilimentum. A young female may, instead, construct haphazard circular stabilimentum. Dispite the sustained attention of researches, the exact function of these decorations is yet to be understood.

Green silk egg sac of St Andrew's Cross Spider

The St Andrew's Cross Spider is active both day and night, occupying the centre of her web. One or more males will wait on the perimeter of the web strumming his mating intentions on the web.

Females construct more than one greenish silk cocoon hidden amongst the foliage close to the web. Hundreds of eggs are deposited in the egg sacs in autumn or late summer.

Argiope keyserlingi (St Andrew's Cross) spiderlings

The St Andrew's Cross Spiderlings emerged from egg sacs in a small Leptospermum shrub in my backyard in July, dispersing on the breeze early in August. Spiderlings are pale grey in colour. They exit the egg sac by unsecuring the flat back of the 'teardrop'-shaped structure.

Sexual cannibalism

Sexual cannibalism is common amongst spiders, but studies have determined that sexual cannibalism differs in the world of the St Andrew's Cross Spider. Females do not consume the captured male while copulating, unlike other sexually cannibalistic spiders, but wrap him in silk, thus terminating copulation.

Females apparently delay cannibalising their second mate if he is relatively smaller than the first, which results in the second male fertilising a larger proportion of her clutch of eggs. Therefore, it has been shown that females adjust the paternity of a preferred male through the timing of cannibalisation.

The web of St Andrew's Cross Spider

It has also been shown that males do not comply to sexual cannibalisation, as is the case with some other spider species. Males that have survived a mating encounter are often missing legs, indicating that they have struggled to avoid capture.

Studies have also revealed that St Andrew's Cross Spiders will relocate their web if the web is damaged by large non-prey animals or if limited prey is available.

A brilliantly coloured St Andrew's Cross Spider

These showy spiders lead complex and interesting lives. I have only encountered two adult female St Andrew's Cross Spiders in the Hunter Valley, indicating that they are not as common as many other garden spiders. If you are lucky enough to have one decorating a corner of your backyard, enjoy its brief stay.

My spider index links to all other Hunter Valley spider species that I've featured on my nature blog. And here is a useful site for identifying common spider species.

#35 Orchids hidden amongst the grass

2007-10-29T10:20:00.000+11:00

Much of the appeal of Australia's ground orchids, for me, is the secretive nature of their growth habits. A single orchid plant can sway in the breeze amongst the grasses that surround it, or a few scattered plants or matted colony can be hidden by overhanging foliage. And as most don't depend upon bright colours to attract pollinators, they are often camouflaged in earthy colours of greens, browns and yellows.

Chiloglottis formicifera - Ant Orchid

I am attempting to find and record as many orchid species in the Hunter Valley as possible, so this blog entry is dedicated to describing three rather unobtrusive terrestrial orchids that I have photographed during September and October of 2007.

Chiloglottis formicifera - Ant Orchid

Chiloglottis formicifera, with the common name of Ant Orchid, is indigenous to Australia and New Zealand, but is presumed extinct in New Zealand due to over-collection. At first sight, it is a rather nondescript orchid and is therefore often overlooked. With closer inspection however, it possesses some exquisitely detailed features.

A single green and purplish-brown flower sits atop a purplish-green scape (stem) 45 to 60mm high. Two ovate, green leaves with conspicuous venation, wavy margin and short stem-clasping stalk lie flat on the ground.

Unfurling bud of Chiloglottis formicifera

The labellum is diamond-shaped with a cluster of small round calli extending to the apex, in addition to the main group of calli which has a conspicuous double-headed callus at the rear.

All Chiloglottis species are sexually deceptive. Male insects are sexually attracted to the flower by a floral scent that imitates sex pheromones of specific female insects. Pollination occurs when pollinators attempt copulation (pseudocopulation) with the flower. Here is a link to some interesting reading and images of pollination by pseudocopulation of Chiloglottis orchids.

Calli of Chiloglottis formicifera

Orchids of the Australian genus Chiloglottis are pollinated through the sexual deception of male thynnine wasps mainly from the genus Neozeleboria. Here is some further reading on the subject, and some more detailed study on sexual deception by orchids.

Flowering period is August to October, but colonies I found were finished flowering by early October. There is more information on Chiloglottis formicifera at PlantNET.

Habitat: sandy heath amongst open forest

I dismissed the following plants as 'weeds', but upon studying my books, I soon realised that I had failed to recognise what was an Onion Orchid.

Microtis parviflora - Slender Onion Orchid

Plants are entirely green with a soft stem loosely sheathed for some distance above the base by a solitary fleshy hollow leaf. The plant reaches a height of 400mm.

A spike of numerous crowded, 3mm green flowers tops the scape (stem). These flowers sit on top of a prominent swollen ovary. It is suggested by David Jones (orchid specialist) that Microtis parviflora is pollinated by ants that are attracted to the inflorescence by a sweet perfume and feed on an abundance of nectar secreted by the labellum.

Microtis parviflora - Slender Onion Orchid

Edit note: I first recorded this Microtis species as Microtis unifolia (Common Onion Orchid), but it has been pointed out to me that the labellem that is relatively heart-shaped is a feature of Microtis parviflora. Thank you to these readers who question and offer advice and alternate suggestions, for I am learning as I go.

Flowering period is October to January. I have found Slender Onion Orchids growing in white clay with grasses, as well as in cracks in rocky embankments. There is more information at PlantNET.

Leaf of a young Slender Onion Orchid

Close-up of flowers of the Slender Onion Orchid

I also overlooked these well-hidden Brown Beak orchids, but found them when I returned to closely inspect the Onion Orchids.

Lyperanthus suaveolens - Brown Beaks

This species has a stem to 300mm high sheathed at the base by a solitary erect linear-lanceolate bright green leaf. A narrow raceme of 2 to 6 purplish-brown flowers each borne in a brown bract, top the scape.

Lyperanthus suaveolens - Brown Beaks

The narrow hooded dorsal sepal extends over top of the yellow recurved labellum. I only found four plants, with flowers aged and withering. They were growing in dry white clay amongst grasses in a sunny position.

One of my books quotes the flowering period as August to September, while my other book quotes the flowering period as September to November. There is more information on Brown Beaks at PlantNET.

The stiff leaf of Lyperanthus suaveolens

Brown Beaks

Next time you're wandering through the forest, heath or unmaintained grassy areas, keep an eye out for these delightful native plants. Like me, you might be pleasantly surprised by your unexpected discoveries.

I have a linked indexed list of all orchids that I have blogged to date, making searching for specific species easy.

#34 Observations of an Eastern Water Dragon

2007-10-22T08:02:00.000+10:00

Having wildlife visit, or live in your garden provides a great opportunity to observe the habits of particular animals at length. A Water Dragon calls my fern garden home, and not only is he interesting to watch, he's also entertaining. My fern garden is on my back patio, so my resident dragon lizard can be easily seen basking, hunting and going about his daily life.

Are you talking about me?

When animals linger in my backyard for more than a fleeting visit, I give them a name - well I can hardly chat to my visitors without addressing them by name, can I? My Water Dragon is "Jacky", because upon first sight I presumed he was a Jacky Dragon (Amphibolurus muricatus), but comparing the two lizards, the differences are obvious.

This juvenile male Eastern Water Dragon (Physignathus lesueurii) arrived on my back porch in late February this year, disappeared for the three months of June, July and August for his winter rest (brumation), presumably in a sheltered spot in my fern garden, reappearing in late August.

Jacky crunches on a Green Carab Beetle (Calosoma schayeri). Presumably, lizards' taste buds are not well developed, because if this beetle tastes as bad as it smells, it should not make a very appetising meal.

Jacky has a routine: at first light he takes a dip in the pond in the fern garden, often sitting on a submerged rock with just his head out of the water. My pond is only small, so Jacky doesn't get the chance for a proper swim, but I have observed his swimming style: he tucks his limbs close to his body creating a streamlined form, and the side to side movement of the tail propels him through the water.

After his early morning swim, he perches on rocks at the front of the garden catching the morning sun, feeding on invertebrates at every opportunity.

In the afternoon when there is no sun on the garden, he often basks on a brick ledge in the sun, snatching hapless insects.

Teeth of an Eastern Water Dragon

Water Dragons (Physignathus lesueurii) do not lose and replace teeth throughout their life. They have a row of sharp pointed teeth adapted for grabbing and holding, fused to the jaw. The tongue is wide and thick. Both the tongue and interior of the mouth are pink.

I've seen my Water Dragon catch and eat cockroaches, slugs, worms, moths, ants, and a variety of small and tiny crawling and flying insects. He will only eat living invertebrates. He is extremely agile and swift.

Teeth of an Eastern Water Dragon

Scats (faeces) of a Water Dragon have a capping of white material at one end, which often becomes detatched. Droppings of my resident juvenile Water Dragon are about 10 to 12mm long.

Excrement of an Eastern Water Dragon

Learning to recognise scats of some locally common creatures, allows you to determine what animals visit your backyard. "Tracks, Scats and Other Traces - A Field Guide to Australian Mammals" by Barbara Triggs is a useful book.

Hearing of an Eastern Water Dragon

Reptiles do not have ear 'flaps' like mammals, but lizards have an external ear structure and therefore have adequate hearing.

The tympanic membrane, is a thin membrane that separates the external ear from the middle ear. The inner sinus in the middle ear cavity containing organs relating to balance and hearing, is filled with fluid in lizards and turtles, whilst in snakes, the recess is filled with air.

Airborn vibrations are picked up by the tympanic membrane. Snakes do not have a tympanic membrane, so can not 'hear', but detect substrate vibrations instead. The tympanic membrane of the Water Dragon is a small slightly-raised disc and can be seen in the close-up picture of the lizard head above. In some lizards, the Eastern Bearded Dragon (Pogona barbata), for example, the tympanic membrane is recessed.

An adult male Eastern Water Dragon

Hopefully, my resident Water Dragon will reach maturity and grow into a large impressive reptile as in the picture above. He will have to leave the security of my fern garden in order to grow to adulthood and breed.

But for the time being, Jacky must be eating well because he is currently moulting. Below is a series of images of the moulting process over two days.

The shedding of scales is called ecdysis, or, moulting or sloughing. Moulting serves a number of functions: my understanding is, firstly, the old and worn skin is replaced, secondly, it helps get rid of parasites such as mites and ticks. And as lizard scales do not grow with the body, moulting is necessary for growth.

The moulting started on the lower legs

The skin flaked off from bottom to top

At the end of day two, the skin peeled off the back

An Eastern Water Dragon (Physignathus lesueurii) is easily distinguished from similar dragon lizards by the presence of a thick black band running from the lower corner of the eye, extending over the tympanic membrane (ear), onto the neck.

A male can be recogised by the bright brick-red colouration of the belly. A male also has a more prominent spiny crest and more yellow patterning on the face and flanks.

I'm off for a swim

My resident Water Dragon is a regular source of interest and amusement as he scurries amongst the plants, leaping from vantage points to catch a feed. It is very satisfying to know that I am creating habitat for native creatures in my backyard that was a bare block of land a couple of years ago. I have recently planted many native shrubs and ground covers in an attempt to provide further habitat for small creatures and birds.

More Water Dragon observations and images can be viewed at my blog entry #12.

#33 Blog Action Day 2007 - The Environment

2007-10-15T08:53:00.000+10:00

"Blog Action Day 2007" is apparently designed to encourage thousands of bloggers to write about the environment in an effort to present a mass of environment-based content simultaneously to viewers who might not normally search out such material, with the admirable aim of increasing awareness and creating interest amongst the community.

Viewers of my Nature Blog are already seeking nature-based subjects, so I'm taking an unconventional approach, and gathering courage, to publish a page from my personal journal that explains how I came to be so intensely interested in the intricate details and intriguing structure of animals and plants, and how their lives and habitats are all interconnected.

Mental ill-health can be a lonely and isolating condition, with this isolation driven by many and varied real or imagined issues.

Humans are social creatures benefiting from regular positive contact with others. Although I appreciate engaging intelligent conversation on just about any subject and derive pleasure from comfortable light-hearted association, I have never desired a rampant social life. I have always been somewhat of a loner.

My reserved nature and nonconformist attitude have always been at odds with each other often resulting in dissatisfying social exchange. ["Nonconformist" in this context does not mean 'refuses to conform', but refers to my determination not to be bound by socially acceptable beliefs and practices of which I might not approve, simply for the sake of my being socially accepted]. My friendships were few and uncomplicated.

As my undiagnosed depression worsened, I began retreating from my usual sources of social contact, including family, avoiding companionable situations and face-to-face ineraction that had become increasingly daunting.

My backyard became my safe little haven screened from neighbours by trees and fences. I happily tended my small patch of lawn and lush fern garden creating a pleasant enclosure where I could spend my time in the outdoors hidden from the world of babbling people and disordered confusion.

Although I have always enjoyed being surrounded by nature, I gradually began to notice details that had previously not been apparent. I found solace immersing myself in the natural world that I had created in my backyard garden. Small shiny skinks scurried through the violets taking up lookout posts on lichen-encrusted rocks, snatching insects and chasing their siblings.

I watched the birds, observing them at length, and realised that they visited my tea-trees to feast on bugs and spiders. And I watched the spiders wrap up their ensnared prey with lightning speed and store the packaged meal in a designated section of the web that was the pantry.

And suddenly the penny dropped. Everything had a place in the huge web of life. Insects were not just insignificant flying, crawling, buzzing nasties! I had so many questions. I wanted to learn more and to develop an understanding of the connection and dependency that existed amongst nature.

But at the same time I contemplated and questioned my own place in the complex jumble of life. It seemed to me that I was drifting aimlessly in a wasteland, occasionally gathering the courage to explore the adventure-land that lay beyond, only to withdraw to the security of familiarity.

Amidst the turmoil borne of undeserved torment and restraints thrust upon me from within that familiarity, I questioned my worthiness. I suppressed the fear and hurt that I felt, while enjoying the goodness and love that surrounded me. I attempted to mask my inner struggle that was, unbeknown to me, heading toward crisis point.

The deep psychological loneliness that I endured was overpowering. My emotional state became so fragile and unpredictable that on some days I was unable to manage simple everyday tasks or communicate with familiar people.

I was totally bewildered and unable to find the words or courage to express myself. I felt abnormal; embarrassed by my peculiar but uncontrollable behaviour; inadequate in so many aspects of life, weak and unintelligent; frightened; disturbed and confused; and sad to the core of my being. Hiding and compromising became my way of dealing with life.

Three years ago I was finally diagnosed with depression. This was a defining moment in my life. My doctor's assurance that many sufferers of depression lived a full and satisfying life free from the debilitation of this insidious affliction helped give me the confidence I needed to initiate the healing process.

Sheer relief flooded through my entire body as I realised there was hope, but simultaneously, conflicting emotions fearing further failure contradicted this glimmer of hope. Going forward from this point was a frightening prospect.

Delving into painful issues with my psychiatrist was extremely draining. Most of my story had never previously been uttered, but had been locked away festering like an untreated wound. Relating these stories was embarrassing and confronting, and hurt like hell. It would be a long and painful road to recovery; it would get worse before it would get better; and I am still a long way from being mentally well.

Suicide is something I have never even vaguely contemplated. Despite my intermittent despair, I have always fostered many and varied dreams and challenges just begging to see the light of day. But I realise now that suicide is not always a planned escape; it can creep up and ambush a person.

Even though I have felt despondent and totally beaten many times in the past, and thought I could have literally died from a broken heart, I have honestly never been 'to the edge'.

But recently I was heading there. It frightens me now as I absorb the reality and danger of the incedent:

As I drove home alone past ploughed and planted paddocks and grazing cattle, I was overwhelmed with an oppressive hopelessness and dread. I had been extremely low recently, but had attained a state of relative calm when this wretchedness was unexpectedly and involuntarily wrenched from a dark corner of my being.

Tears filled my eyes and spilled down my cheeks, and a strange calmness washed over me. Through blurred vision, the temptation to drive uncontrolled off the road at speed confronted me.

It wasn't a willing thought - my mind had been drifting in a dull void whilst I accomplished necessary tasks in town and on the short drive toward home. Nor was it a misty dream-like vision. It was an alternate path, undefined, but with a distinct destination in view. A mysterious force was drawing me in, enticing me.

The rugged and isolated terrain remains a clear, ugly, disturbing image in my head, easily recalled today. Jagged escarpment rimmed dark gorges camouflaged by simmering heat-haze creating a treacherous empty brown wilderness; a gaping barren hole in a picturesque rural landscape. Sadly, I realise this is a reflection of my life.

Without experiencing any revelation of right and wrong, I simply drove home, dazed, without noticing my existence. I slumped my weak, numb body onto my garden seat and sobbed.

I am aware that rational sense escapes me when I am vulnerable or desperate, but I now feel reasonably confident that I can overcome the danger if I am presented with the option of the lonely path to self destruction again.

When I find myself extremely low in spirit I must attempt to muster the strength from deep within to separate myself from the immediate danger. And after the threat has passed, I must assess my mental state and take particular care of my damaged mind, gathering purpose and focusing on my beautiful soul. I will survive and thrive.

I do not have a God. When all else fails, I gather strength, inspiration and comfort from nature.

If we, individually, and collectively, do not curb our greed, wastefulness, consumerism and over-population of the Earth, our floundering planet will surely die; or at least cease to provide that which we are accustom to. We are care-takers of this planet. The children of the world are the future care-takers of this planet.

Let's take the time and effort to appreciate and preserve the air, the land, the water, the plants, the animals, the resources. Nothing exists alone; everything is connected.

My aim, through my nature blog, and my wider persuits, is to create awareness and interest in our environment and our role within it. Although my Blog Action Day post exposes my vulnerability and instability, and is off-topic, I hope it also emphasises my view that we can all make a positive difference to the environment that sustains us.

#32 More Spring Orchids

2007-10-10T13:17:00.000+10:00

There are so many exceptionally beautiful and intricately detailed native plants, camouflaged amongst the undergrowth living secret lives. some of Australia's ground orchids could have been designed by the wildest imaginations for a way-out science fiction or fantasy film, so weird and complex are their flowers.

No, this is not some man-eating plant with a tentacled tongue ready to pounce. It is one of Australia's amazing orchids unfurling - Purplish Beard-orchid, Calochilus robertsonii.

I have done some serious and extremely enjoyable orchid hunting in the Hunter Valley recently, and have found some fabulous plants. It's always a thrill to 'discover' species I have not previously seen. The Copper Beard-orchid, Red Beard-orchid and Purplish Beard-orchid are three of my October finds.

Calochilus paludosus - Red Beard-orchid

When I first saw the Red Beard-orchid while walking one of the bush tracks at the Hunter Region Botanic Gardens, my excitement bubbled over. I have since seen it in the Cessnock area of the Lower Hunter Valley.

The three Beard Orchids that I'm featuring here have slight, but distinctive differences enabling them to be distinguished. The differences mainly lie in the labellum and column.

Red Beard-orchid, Calochillus paludosus has a slender whitish-green scape (stem) to about 350mm tall, with an erect, linear, three-cornered (channelled) basal leaf and 1 or 2 stem bracts. Flowers are greenish with reddish stripes. The triangular labellum (tongue or lip) bears course, crinkled red to copperish hairs and a long creased ribbon-like tail. The flower is 20 to 25mm wide.

I have found this plant growing in sandy soil amongst leaf litter in open Eucalypt forest, hard white clay, and gravel embankment. More information at PlantNET.

Red Beard-orchid (Calochilus paludosus), on the left; and Purplish Beard-orchid (Calochilus robertsonii) on the right. The most noticeable differences occur at the base of the labellum. Notice that the Purplish Beard-orchid has two dark glands (dots) at the base of the labellum, either side of crowded shiny glands. If the picture was magnified, you would notice the two prominent dark glands are connected by a raised reddish ridge. Notice that the interior of the dorsal sepal (upper back) on the Red Beard-orchid is green, while the interior dorsal sepal of the Purplish Beard-orchid is marked with vein-like reddish-purple markings.

Copper Beard-orchid (Calochilus campestris) also has the two dark glands (resembling eyes) at the base of the labellum, but is easily distinguished by the raised metallic blue or purplish markings.

This image (below) of the back of the Beard-orchid flower shows the positioning of the sepals and petals. The broad petal-shaped vertical section is the dorsal (upper back) sepal; the two stiped, horrizontal side-facing sections are the petals; and the two downwards facing sections are the lateral (side) sepals. An easy-to-follow description of the positioning of similar orchid parts can be found on my Orchid Biology blog entry.

Also noticeable in the photo above, is the creased labellum 'tail'. From my brief observations, it appears that this tail is longest in the Red Beard-orchid.

Calochilus robertsonii - Purplish Beard-orchid

I have seen more of this species than the other two. The stiff, slender, single stem is the same colour as that of the Red Beard-orchid and can be between 200 and 400mm high, with one linear, channelled green leaf. It has between 2 and 4 stem bracts.

The labellum has long lustrous purplish hairs, becoming shorter, thicker and gland-like at the base below the column. It has a relatively short, crooked strap-like 'tail'.

I have found this plant growing in grass over hard white clay, gravel embankment, moss over damp soil, and grassy soil in eucalypt forest. More information at PlantNET.

A side view of the Red Beard-orchid (Calochilus paludosus) shows the long creased 'tail' on the tip of the labellum. Although the dorsal sepal (upper back) is depressed in this instance, it is usually erect and slightly 'hooded'. Also notice one of the stem bracts.

Notice the shorter 'tail' at the tip of the labellum of the Purplish Beard-orchid (Calochilus robertsonii). Also notice that the purplish vein-like markings on the side petals are definite lines, whereas the markings on the petals of the Red Beard-orchid (above) are thicker and irregular.

And notice that the side petals of the Copper Beard-orchid (Calochilus camperstris) below appear only to have the reddish markings on the interior and not the exterior (as in the two pictures above). You will also notice the short, stumpy, crumpled 'tail' of the curled-under labellum. The differences are subtle, but important for identification purposes.

Calochilus campestris - Copper Beard-orchid

I have only found one plant, so I consider it a very fortunate find. This is a robust plant, usually 300 to 500mm high, although the plant I found was only 200mm. It has a deeply channelled leaf and two green or coppery stem bracts.

Flowers are in a raceme of about 5 to 15. They are yellowish green with red-brown or purplish markings and a labellum that is shorter than the other two species. It is about 15mm long, triangular, sometimes with a short strap-like tip, and rather sparse coppery red hairs. There are dark shiny glands in both lower corners of the column, and smooth metalic blue or purplish raised linear markings at the base of the labellum.

The single plant I found was growing amongst sparse grasses over hard white clay. More information at PlantNET.

Purplish Beard-orchid

I'm sure you'd agree now, that there is nothing plain or boring about our native orchids. I am not aware if there is a specific insect which pollinates each species, or a range of small insects. I presume the 'beard' serves a purpose. As I learn more about these fascinating plants, I will share my observations and collection of information from those more experienced than I.

#31 Red-bellied Black Snakes

2007-10-06T06:19:00.000+10:00

Snakes are mobile again after emerging from winter rest (brumation) and are actively hunting and preparing to breed. Red-bellied Black Snakes are one of the most commonly encountered snakes of the Hunter Valley.

A Red-bellied Black Snake slithers off into the leaf litter of the Barrington Tops NP rainforest

'Hibernation' in reptiles is called brumation - it is different from hibernation in mammals in that the reptile is not living off its fat reserves. Instead, its metabolism, which is temperature dependent, has slowed down so much because of the cold that it hardly uses any energy over the course of winter. The reptile is still awake and still active (although very sluggish), but it actually doesn’t lose any significant weight during the winter.

The Red-bellied Black Snake, Pseudechis porphyriacus, is from family Elapidae. Elapids are venomous snakes having permanently erect fangs in the front of the upper jaw.

Features of Red-bellied Black Snakes

Although the sudden sighting of a snake always gets my adrenalin racing through a healthy dose of fear, I can't help but admire the beauty of this reptile. As seen in my first picture of a Red-bellied Black Snake, the dorsal colour is a uniform glossy black. The belly is cream to pink with red flanks, and the snout is often brown.

1.5 to 2 metres is a common length, but there have been specimens recorded up to 2.5 metres long. Although a bite from a Red-bellied Black snake is venomous, it rarely results in the death of a human.

This species is not renowned for being aggressive and is quick to retreat if disturbed. I have encountered them basking beside clumps of thick ground-hugging vegetation and on walking trails, and they have always been swift to disappear.

A 1.2 metre Red-bellied Black Snake hastily retreats to the safety of thicker vegetation when I encounter it basking by the Hunter River

When approached or provoked, the Red-bellied Black Snake can recoil into a striking stance as a threat and flatten its head similar to that of a Cobra. It can also hiss loudly, but will try to escape at the first opportunity. When cornered, or if a person is attempting to kill or capture the snake, it may strike and bite.

This startled Red-belly flattened its head and looked threatening when I encountered it in thick grass. I stood still (photographing), and the snake moved away swiftly.

During mating season, males have been seen engaged in vigorous combat where they raise their bodies, intertwined in a struggle of strength. Biting does not occur, but the strongest snake will displace the rival courting male.

Mating season begins in spring, and an average of 12 young are produced between January and March. Red-bellied Black Snakes are viviparous (bearing live young). These are enclosed in clear membranous sacs from which they emerge shortly after birth. Average length at birth is 22cm, and young disperse after a few weeks. A baby's bite is as toxic as the parents', with well-developed venom glands from birth.

Habitat, range and prey

The Red-bellied Black Snake is widespread along Australia's east coast and ranges from north Queensland, through NSW and Victoria, into south-eastern SA. It is not found in Tasmania which I find surprising as it is suited to cool climates.

It's preferred habitat is swamps, riverbanks and the edges of damp forests. Whenever I have seen Red-bellied Black Snakes, they have been within 50 metres of a watercourse.

Frogs are their preferred prey, but they will eat reptiles and small mammals. They are able swimmers and therefore fish and eels are also on the menu.

An Eastern Brown Snake and Red-bellied Black Snake seen basking in the winter sun together presents a rare and odd sight. Both of these snakes were displaced from their winter shelters by the flooding Hunter River and took temporary shelter together in the in-ground telecommunications pit in front of my house. They will tolerate each other as they are cold and sluggish and unlikely to eat during winter. They have since moved on, together with a Blue Tongue Lizard and another Eastern Brown Snake that were also sharing the pit.

Populations have apparently declined dramatically in Qld and northern NSW, which has been attributed to the spread of the toxic introduced Cane Toad. Degredation of waterways has also contributed to the decline of Red-bellied Black Snakes.

Red-bellies are known to be canabalistic. They are also one of the Eastern Brown Snakes, (Pseudonaja textilis) major predators, keeping their numbers in check.

When encountered, the Red-bellied Black Snake will usually retreat swiftly without threat.

There are plenty of reasons to resist picking up a shovel when you encounter a Red-bellied Black Snake, the most relavent of which is that humans should respect the life and habitat of native wildlife. Snakes, like all other creatures, are a vital part of the big picture.

If you require a snake to be removed from your living space or work place, wildlife carers or NPWS should be able to put you in contact with a trained snake rescuer. With awareness and education, it is hoped that people will be more tolerant and understanding of snakes. Red-bellied Black Snakes are not aggressive unless provoked, and will avoid humans when ever possible.

Hunter Valley Nature Index - Fungi and Slime Moulds

2007-10-06T06:17:00.002+10:00

Note: expanding Fungi Blog here

Fungi

Earthstars - Geastrum #25

Luminous (Ghost) fungi - Omphalotus nidiformis #16

Puffball lifecycle #10

Stinkhorn fungi #5

Fungi identification #50

Slime moulds

Species #22

Species #41

Structure #22

Hunter Valley Nature Index - Native Flora and Grasses

2007-10-06T06:16:00.001+10:00

Pea Flowers

Bossiaea scolopendria #37

Daviesia ulicifolia - Gorse Bitter-pea #24

Glycine clandestina - Twining Glycine #37

Glycine tabacina #37

Gompholobium latifolium - Broad-leaf Wedge-pea #37

Hardenbergia violacea - Purple Twining-pea #24

Indigofera australis - Native Indigo #24

Jacksonia scorparia - Dogwood #24

Kennedia rubicunda - Dusky Coral-pea #24

Oxylobium ilicfolium - Native Holly or Prickly Shaggy-pea #24

Oxylobium pulteneae - Wiry Shaggy Pea #24

Swainsona galegifolia - Smooth Darling Pea #37

Templetonia stenophylla - Leafy Templetonia #37

Hunter Valley Nature Index - Nature issues and events

2007-10-06T06:14:00.000+10:00

Conservation and rehabilitation

River Red Gums, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, in the Hunter Valley #8

Creating habitat

In your backyard #1 - #23 - #28

Change of seasons

Spring #28

Endangered species

River Red Gums, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, in the Hunter Valley #8

Extreme weather

Flood, Hunter River, June 2007 #21

Hunter Valley Nature Index - Orchids

2007-10-05T14:51:00.001+10:00

Greenhood Orchids

Bunochilus longifolius - Tall Greenhood #27

Diplodium grandiflora - Superb (or Cobra) Greenhood #52

Hymenochilus muticus - Midget Greenhood #52

Pterostylis curta - Blunt Greenhood #27

Pterostylis nutans - Nodding Greenhood #26 - #27

Pterostylis pedunculata - Maroonhood #27

Taurantha concinna - Trim Greenhood #27

Other Ground Orchids

Acianthus fornicatus - Large Mosquito Orchid or Pixie Caps #20

Calochilus campestris - Copper Beard-orchid #32

Calochilus paludosus - Red Beard-orchid #32

Calochilus robertsonii - Purplish Beard-orchid #32

Chiloglottis reflexa - (OR Chiloglottis diphylla ?) Autum Bird-orchid #20

Chiloglottis formicifera - Ant Orchid #35

Corybas aconitiflorus - Spurred Helmet-orchid #20

Cyanicula caerulea - Blue Caladenia #30

Dipodium punctatum - Blotched Hyacinth Orchid #19

Diuris - Donkey Orchids #19

Lyperanthus suaveolens - Brown Beaks #35

Microtis parviflora - Slender Onion Orchid #35

Petalochilus carneus - Pink Fingers #30

Petalochilus catenatus - White Caladenia or White Fingers #30

Petalochilus pictus - White Fingers #20 - #30

Spiranthes sinensis - Pink Spiral Orchid or Ladies' Tresses #19

Epyphitic Orchids

Bulbophyllum exiguum - Mat Orchid #19

Dendroium speciosum - Rock Orchid or Rock Lily #19

Orchid structure and habits

Flower structure #19

Greenhood structure #26

Greenhood reproduction #26

Mycorrhizas (orchid fungi) #19

Pollination #30 - #26 - #19

Hunter Valley Nature Index - Invertebrates (winged)

2007-10-05T14:10:00.000+10:00

Crickets

Striped Raspy Cricket - Paragryllacris combusta #3

Mantids

Orthodera gunnii #18

Wasps

Mud-dauber Wasp - Sceliphron laetum #7

Orange Potter Wasp - Eumenes latreilli #7

Butterflies and their larvae

Dainty Swallowtail - Papilio anactus #6

Miscellaneous winged invertebrates

Lerps and Psyllids #29

Hunter Valley Nature Index - Invertebrates (wingless)

2007-10-05T14:01:00.001+10:00

Spiders

Bird Dropping Spider - Calaenia excavata #57

Garden (or Australian) Wolf Spider - Lycosa godeffroyi #13

Golden Orb-weaver Spider - Nephila edulis #4

Redback Spider, Latrodectus hasselti #11

Spiny, Jewel or Christmas Spider - Austracantha minax #15

St Andrew's Cross Spider - Argiope keyserlingi #36

Spider information

Spider courtship and sex #4 - #11 - #36

Spider shedding skin #4

Spider holes in the ground #13

Venomous spiders #11

Miscellaneous wingless invertebrates

Lerps and Psyllids #29

Hunter Valley Nature Index - Reptiles

2007-10-05T11:03:00.002+10:00

Snakes

Eastern Brown Snake - Pseudonaja textilis #21 - #54

Red-bellied Black Snake - Pseudechis porphyriacus #21 - #31

Snake habits including hibernation #28 - #21

Lizards

Eastern Bearded Dragon - Pogona barbata #2

Eastern Water Dragon - Physignathus lesueurii #12 - #34

Southern Rainbow Skink - Carlia tetradactyla #17

Lizards in the garden #28

Turtles

Long Necked Turtle - Chelodina longicollis #28

Frogs

Broad-palmed Frog - Litoria latopalmata #51

Eastern Dwarf Tree Frog - Litoria fallax #51

Green Tree Frog - Litoria caerulea #46 #51

Leaf Green Tree Frog - Litoria phyllochroa #51

Lesueur's Tree Frog - Litoria wilcoxi #51

Peron's Tree Frog - Litoria peronii #49 #51

Ornate Burrowing Frog - Opisthodon ornatus #51

Spotted Grass Frog, Limnodynastes tasmaniensis #23 #51

Tyler's (or Laughing) Tree Frog - Litoria Tyleri #51

#30 Spring orchids

2007-10-02T08:19:00.001+10:00

Spring is warming up and ground orchids are becoming more scarce in the Hunter Valley, but I've observed many from the Caladenia group in varying shades of blue, pink and white. Caladenias are dainty terrestrial orchids that are a joy to see bobbing in the breeze, but they are often not easy to identify. I am devoting this blog entry to describing species in the hope of making recognition easier for others.

Cyanicula caerulea has a single bright blue flower about 25mm across. The labellum (lip or tongue) has dark blue bars and two rows of yellowish calli.

Caladenias have recently been regrouped with some species being split into several groups. I am an orchid novice and I'm not going to attempt, at this stage, to unravel the mysteries of taxonomy, but will just accept what the experts profess.

Formerly known as "Ladies Fingers", Caladenias are now referred to as "Finger Orchids" (another example of "political correctness" gone mad). The "fingers" are the lateral sepals and petals resembling a hand of four spread fingers.

Cyanicula caerulea, formerly Caladenia caerulea, is one of the more easily-identified Finger Orchids and is often one of the first to appear in spring. I found it in massed displays in disturbed rocky soil in Werakata National Park near Cessnock in the lower Hunter Valley in late winter and early spring.

It has a single bright green basal leaf to about 70mm long by 4mm wide which tends to lie flat on the ground. Cyanicula caerulea, commonly called Blue Caladenia, bears a solitary flower on a dark scape (stem) from about 50mm to 130mm high. The flower is sky blue to purplish, and covered in minute dark blue to purple glands (hairs) on the outside.

The labellum has a white or yellow tip and is marked with dark bands. There are two rows of stalked yellow-headed calli.

The only other blue Caladenia in eastern Australia is Bluebeard Orchid or Blue Fairies (Pheladenia deformis, formerly Caladenia deformis) which has 4 to 6 irregular crowded rows of stalked calli densly covering the labellum which distinguishes it from Cyanicula caerulea. I have not seen Pheladenia deformis in the Hunter Valley and I am not aware if it is found here.

Cyanicula caerulea is also found in Victoria, ACT and Queensland and it flowers between July and September.

Notice there is no green on the column at all. This photo of Cyanicula caerulea (Blue Caladenia) shows the vertical burgundy pattern on the interior of the column and purple colouration on the underside of the labellum.

Petalochilus carneus, formerly Caladenia carnea, and commonly called Pink Fingers, is a more variable species. The colour variation ranging from pale to dark pink through to white and white tinged with pink is well illustrated by Denis Wilson on his Nature of Robertson blog. As yet, I have only observed dark and light pink specimens.

The identifying feature of Petalochilus carneus in all its shades is the dark pink horizontal banding of the upper surface of the labellum and the inner surface of the column. The exterior of the column is green. The labellum has two rows of yellow calli and a yellow tip.

Petalochilus carneus has one erect dark green leaf to 150mm long by 4mm wide, and a thin green scape to 250mm high. Plants can bear one or two flowers. This species is wide-spread and found in NSW, Qld, ACT, Vic, Tas and SA, and it flowers between August and October.

The dark pink or red markings on the labellum and column are a feature of Petalochilus carneus. Notice the green exterior of the column and the yellow tip of the labellum.

A picture of a pale pink Petalochilus carneus (Pink Fingers) with two flowers. Note that the dark pink banding can be seen through the green of the column and the white of the labellum.

The most noticable difference in these next two white Caladenias to the novice orchid observer is the colour of the column.

The column of Petalochilus pictus (left) has a green exterior and red interior, while Petalochilus catenatus (right) has a column that is green inside and out.

Petalochilus catenatus, (formerly Caladenia catenata and Caladenia alba), is commonly called White Fingers or White Caladenia. It generally flowers from June to October and is found in NSW, Qld, Vic and SA.

It has one dark green erect linear leaf up to 120mm long by 4mm wide. The green hairy scape can be up to 300mm tall holding one or two white, or occasionally pink-flushed, flowers. There are two rows of stalked club-headed yellowish calli on the white, yellow-tipped labellum.

Green column of Petalochilus catenatus

Petalochilus pictus (formerly Caladenia picta) is also referred to as White Fingers or White Caladenia. It can flower anytime between late May and October, and although predominantly white, it can also be tinged with pink.

The red of the column interior is most commonly solid, but can occasionally be split in to two sections (but does not appear in several bands).

A pink-tinged Petalochilus pictus.

My Orchid biology blog entry briefly and simply describes orchid parts and their functions.

For an easy-to-understand description of orchid pollination, I suggest reading How orchids are pollinated by Denis Wilson of Nature of Robertson. Here are a couple of my native ground orchid pictures relating to pollination.....

This fly has probably entered the labellum gap of Petalochilus catenatus seeking the nectar often found on the large basal glands. The insect can turn around as the labellum is hinged and mobile, and in its efforts to escape it can be noticed the thorax is touching the pollinia, so the next time the insect attends another flower, pollination should occur. As the stigma is situated immediately below the pollinia sac, the insect, when turning, tends to scatter the pollinia on to the column and stigma.

The pollinia have been dislodged from the top of the column in this Petalochilus carneus, and on being subject to the air, has become mealy (dry) and dropped on to the base of the labellum giving the illusion of a second set of pollinia. This procedure occurs in the genus Thelymitra (Sun Orchids) quite frequently.

My thanks to members of Australasian Native Orchid Society who helped me distinguish between Petalochilus catenatus and Petalochilus pictus as well as clarifying some aspects of pollination. I hope this brief description, together with my photos and links, will assist other novice orchid admirers identify Caladenias that they observe.

These delicate and pretty little native ground orchids are worth seeking, and I am always delighted to find them popping up in grassy open forest and amongst roadside vegetation.

#29 Spotted Pardolates are nesting

2007-09-24T10:04:00.000+10:00

Bird-watching in the Hunter Valley has been an absorbing and rewarding lifelong pastime for me, as it has also been throughout Australia on my travels. Springtime is a particularly exciting period to observe our feathered natives, with a flurry of nest-building, courting and family activities in full swing.

A male Spotted Pardalote checks out the photographer

[This photograph by my husband, Grahame]

My bird-watching persuits have always been a relaxing, though engaging, affair where I have rarely attempted to capture photographs, content to just enjoy their company. My husband, Grahame, has recently decided to delve into the frustrating, but stimulating hobby of bird photography in preparation for a satisfying retirement hobby. I will occasionally use his photographs in my Nature Blog to highlight the beauty and diversity of Hunter Valley birdlife.

The brightly plumed Spotted Pardalote is a captivating subject. Werakata National Park in the lower Hunter Valley was our hunting ground, an area of Leptospermum scrub and regenerating Eucalyptus forest.

One of the distinguishing features between the sexes that is sometimes overlooked, is the colouration of the spots on top of the head. The female (top) has pale yellow spots on the crown, whereas the male (bottom) has white. [These photographs by my husband, Grahame]

Nest building

Spotted Pardalotes, Pardalotus punctatus, most commonly excavate a nesting cavity at the end of a tunnel dug in earthen banks or sloping ground. Roadside cuttings can provide appropriate sites for nesting, making fleeting encounters possible. For detailed observation purposes, however, it will be necessary to search out a nest in a situation with more room and less distraction.

The tunnel opening is 4 to 5cm wide, with the burrow reportedly about 50cm long and opening into a breeding chamber lined with bark and other vegetation. These tiny birds with legs about 2mm thick hardly look like efficient earth moving machines, with feet designed for perching and beaks suited to scraping insects from leaf surfaces. As I have not viewed their construction technique, I will always be left wondering what the difficulty factor is in this project, and how long it takes to complete.

Although the earthen tunnel nest offers protection from adverse weather conditions and predatory birds, a lot of energy is obviously expended, and still there is the threat of predation from snakes, lizards and foxes. According to my Michael Morcome Field Guide, 3 to 5 white eggs are laid, incubation takes about 14 days and there are often two broods in a season.

This nest looks to be still under construction. Notice the dampness at the tunnel entrance which appears to be purposefully deposited moisture. I observed this site for quite some time after seeing the female exit, but ran out of patience before the builders returned.

Spotted Pardalotes are also known to nest in small tree hollows and even artificial cavities, but earthen burrows are more common. Male and female are both involved in nest building and parenting duties.

Diet of Spotted Pardalotes

Upon consulting my bird field guide, I found that 'Lerps' featured high on the menu of Spotted Pardalotes. I was unsure exactly what lerps were, so I set out to find out, and then to find some to inspect and photograph.

Lerps are protective covers constructed by the nymphs of jumping plant lice (Order Homoptera/Hemiptera, Family Psyllidae). Lerps are formed from the honeydew excreted by the nymphs on the leaf surface. The honeydew consists of sugars and amino acids which crystallises on contact with air. Psyllids are tiny sap-sucking winged insects that feed on native trees and shrubs, especially eucalypts.

This lerp is about 5mm wide and protects a psyllid nymph as it feeds by sucking sap from leaves. Click on photos to view an enlargement.

Psyllids are Australian native insects. They produce a sticky substance (excrement) called honeydew, which drops to the ground, often splattering cars parked under eucalypts. A dark sooty mould grows on honeydew-covered surfaces, including the lerps.

Each nymph lives under its own white semi-conical waxy lerp feeding on plant juices. Adults are not as readily observed because they are active and tend to hide amongst leaves. Adult psyllids are about 4mm long and winged. Eggs are tiny and laid in rows or clusters on leaf surfaces.

Following a 10-20 day incubation period, the newly hatched nymphs (or ‘crawlers’) emerge and move over the leaf surface in search of food. They then construct a protective shell or cone-shaped cover (more commonly known as a ‘lerp’) from starchy material derived from the host plant.

Growth to adulthood occurs mostly within the confines of the original lerp, with maturation from egg to adult taking between 8 weeks and 6 months, depending on temperature. Warm temperatures create optimum growth conditions.

An overturned lerp with psyllid nymph

A close-up of the psyllid nymph that is less than 2mm long. Notice the unformed wings, and the leg configuration with front leg facing forward and two pairs of hind legs facing backwards.

Physical features of the Spotted Pardalote

Both male and female Spotted Pardalote, are between 8 and 10cm long and profusely spotted. The female has pale yellow or buff spots on the crown, while the male has white. Wings of both sexes are marked with clean white spots.

The male has a bright yellow throat, while the female's yellow throat is dull and patchy. Both have deep red and yellow on the rump, but the male's colour is more pronounced. Both also have a white eyebrow defined by the black spotted crown, but again, the male's markings are more defined. A sound file of the Spotted Pardalote is linked to entry 35 on this Birds in Backyard page.

The male bird's bright yellow throat and white eyebrow [This photograph by my husband, Grahame]

Distribution of the Spotted Pardalote, Pardalotus punctatus, includes the east of eastern Australia from Atherton Tableland in north Queensland through NSW, Victoria and Tasmania, and into the south eastern corner of South Australia. It also occurs naturally in the south west of Western Australia from about Jurien Bay to Esperance.

The female bird with a less bold throat, head and face [This photograph by my husband, Grahame]

And the bright red and yellow rump of the male as it enters its nesting burrow

Out of breeding season, Spotted Pardalotes form small flocks and are rarely seen as they feed high in the eucalypt canopy. But as they pair off to breed, they can be seen entering and leaving their nesting tunnel, and if you are prepared to initially wait for these busy little birds to become comfortable with your presence, they will go about their activities, making observation easy.

Their bright flashy colour and intricately patterned plumage make them stunning subjects to watch, and now is the time to see them.

#28 Springtime in the Backyard

2007-09-07T12:35:00.000+10:00

Rarely is there a clear-cut distinction between the seasons in the Hunter Valley - one merely blends with the next. Autumn and spring are my favourite times of year, when temperatures are mild and nature is busy.

Superb Blue Fairy Wrens taking a bath in the garden

Creating a backyard environment that encourages birds and animals to visit and linger provides a fabulous opportunity to observe the habits and antics of wildlife right on our doorstep. And of course, gives back a little that we have all participated in taking from our natural surroundings.

Our homes, roads, shopping centres and schools have all displaced native flora and fauna, but with a little tolerance and understanding, we can all contribute to the welfare of the environment that we have altered to suit our modern lifestyle.

Spring is the season of regeneration and reproduction. Birds, animals and invertebrates are breeding, and plants are producing flowers and seed.

Birds in the backyard are a delight to watch. Providing habitat and water in a predator-free zone is the most effective way to attract birds to your garden. Cats and unruly dogs will dramatically limit the number and variety of native birds and animals that visit your neighbourhood.

Mr Magpie follows me as I dig my garden, and collects grubs and a wolf spider to feed his nest-bound chicks

Water is a daily necessity for most birds. By placing the water off the ground and close to a high, protected perch, birds can visit the water supply in safety. Keep water clean to prevent the spread of disease.

Spring is a great time of year for gardening. Establishing a garden with ground-covers, grasses, shrubs and trees will create a 'layered' habitat for birds and animals. Using native plants in the garden will simulate native habitat, and be drought tollerant.

Dumping garden soil and green refuse might sound like a relatively harmless way to get rid of organic waste, but it is in fact extremely detrimental to the natural environment, and should be totally avoided.

Garden soil containing seed, tubers or remains of exotic plants discarded on roadsides or in gullies or paddocks has introduced severe infestations of weeds to the countryside. These exotic plants often become rampant and displace vital native vegetation, therefore completely altering the bird, animal and intertebrate populations of an area.

It is important for gardeners to be aware of the serious and permanent impact escaped exotic plants can have on the environment as the pleasant spring days encourage us to rejuvenate our gardens.

Top: Agave americana from Mexico has at times been a popular garden plant in Australia, due to its drought-tolerant characteristics, but thoughtlessly discarded, it reproduces rampantly and displaces all other vegetation [correction edit: I had initially incorrectly labelled this plant an Aloe species from Africa - many thanks to the reader who thoughtfully corrected me]. And bottom: Fresias, like most garden bulbs, will multiply unrestricted in the wild preventing native herbs and orchids from taking hold. Garden plants might look pretty in the bush, but they are weeds, and have no place outside of the garden.

As daytime temperatures rise, reptiles will leave their winter shelters and seek food and mates. The sudden sight of a lizard tail disappearing amongst garden clutter can evoke the same fear as that of a snake sighting in our living space. But if contact is avoided, lizards are harmless, and are excellent natural insect and snail controllers.

Most lizard species only become active when the air temperature is well above 15 degrees Celcius. Consequently, most species of Hunter Valley lizard enter a torpor (semi-hibernation) over winter. They will emerge to bask in the sun on warm winter days, but will rarely feed. As the daytime temperature becomes consistantly warmer, lizards will become active.

The Eastern Water Dragon, Physignathus lesueurii, that made its home in my fern garden earlier in the year, has returned after disappearing for the three months of winter, while the Bearded Dragon, Pogona barbata, that spent much of summer and autumn in my backyard woodheap, has also returned after a four month absence. Rainbow Skinks, Carlia tetradactyla, are also active in my gardens again.

I'm thrilled to have have at least three species of lizards living in my garden. Blue Tongue lizards also pay my yard a visit occasionally. I provide accessible water for lizards, and try not to disturb them as they bask and feed in my garden. My garden is still under construction, with no plants more than about two years old, which proves that there are lizards out there just begging for a bit of habitat.

My resident Bearded Dragon wanders off to feed in the adjoining paddock, returning to the safety of my wood heap in the evening.

Like most people, I'm not keen for snakes to make frequent visits to my backyard. But at the same time, I strongly support the right of snakes to co-exist with humans. Where possible, snakes will avoid contact with humans.

Discouraging snakes from lingering in your yard is usually as simple as controlling rodents, and eliminating rubbish, especially unused sheets of corrugated roofing iron. Most snake bites occur as the result of a person attempting to catch or kill a snake.

This venomous Eastern Brown Snake is well camouflaged basking in the brown grass on my footpath.

Wildlife Aid groups, WIRES or National Parks and Wildlife Service can usually put you in contact with a trained snake rescuer if you need a snake removed from your home, yard or workplace.

Turtles are on the move during spring, searching out mates. Long Necked Turtles, Chelodina longicollis, are common in the Hunter Valley, and at this time of year are fatally injured crossing roads.

If you can safely move a roaming turtle from the path of road traffic, do so. However, do not be tempted to relocate a turtle as they are territorial, and they know where they are going.

A Long-necked Turtle shelters in my garden overnight as it journeys in search of a mate.

And of course, there will be lots of invertebrate activity in your garden with the coming of spring. Although most invertebrates are small, they have fascinating lives - observe them, and enjoy them.

Gentle butterfly love on my back lawn

And a bit of rough stuff in the bushes

Do you have any questions ?

My neighbours think I'm a bit peculiar stretched out on my belly in the paddock peering up the skirts of mushrooms, and my adult offspring think I'm more than a little odd when I get excited at getting up close and personal with Mrs Wolf Spider's hairy knees, but my grandkids think I'm pretty cool. Life's fun. And spring time in the backyard can be a real adventure. Get stuck into it!

#27 Winter orchids

2007-08-30T19:44:00.000+10:00

Before the official end of winter I'd like to show off some of the Hunter Valley's delicate and pretty Greenhood orchids. At a casual glance, ground orchids often go unnoticed amongst grasses and leaf litter, but they are well worth searching out.

The twisted labellum of the Blunt Greenhood

Last week I posted a brief outline of the biology of greenhoods, along with some pictures of the delightful Nodding Greenhood, Pterostylis nutans. I've found another four species in the mid and lower Hunter.

Blunt Greenhood, Pterostylis curta, is a charming flower with a twisted labellum (tongue), somewhat resembling a cheeky cartoon character. This twisted labellum is a distinctive identifying feature. A single stem up to 30cm tall emerges from a basal rosette of 3 to 6 dark green ovate stalked leaves, and bears a single flower. The flower is surprising large, up to 3.5cm height.

The flowering season of Pt. curta is from August to October, and it has been recorded in all eastern states of Australia, as well as South Australia. It can form extensive colonies, and I have seen it growing in moss over rock, moist sheltered areas, grassy woodland and leaf litter.

My Hunter Valley sightings in August of 2007 include Werakata National Park, Watagans National Park, Broke/Wollembi and Hunter Region Botanic Gardens. More information on Pterostylis curta is available at PlantNET.

A rear view of Pterostylis curta, Blunt Greenhood

Trim Greenhood, Taurantha concinna, which has recently had a name change from Pterostylis concinna, is another greenhood with a distinctive labellum, making identification a little easier. The apex of the redddish-brown labellum is notched, forming a 'fork'.

The plant is variable in height, depending on conditions, and I have seen it up to about 20cm high. It has long erect lateral sepals. Whilst the flower is predominently green and white, there are brown tints to the lateral (side) sepals and sinus (V-shape formed at the front of the flower by the lateral sepals). More information on Taurantha concinna at PlantNET.

I have observed Taurantha concinna, Trim Greenhood, growing in leaf litter and grassy open woodland at the Hunter Regional Botanic Gardens at Heatherbrae (May, Jun), and Werakata National Park near Cessnock (Jul, Aug).

The distinctive forked labellum of the Trim Greenhood

Long erect lateral sepals of the Trim Greenhood, in this specimen, sweeping inwards to touch.

Maroonhood, Pterostylis pedunculata, diverts from the usual green to display a dark reddish-brown flower. It has a solitary narrow flower atop a stalk up to about 25cm high. The tip of the labellum is just visible through the deep 'V' formed at the front of the flower by the lateral sepals. Lateral sepals spread upwards or backwards into long linear points.

I have seen Maroonhoods growing in dense colonies at Hunter Region Botanic Gardens at Heatherbrae in the Lower Hunter Valley in a shaded moist position amongst leaf litter in August 2007. More information on Pterostylis pedunculata at PlantNET.

A Maroonhood adorned with spider web. Notice the pointed labellum is just visible

Side and rear view of Pterostylis pedunculata

Rosette of dark-green ovate stalked leaves of Maroonhoods

A colony of Pterostylis pedunculata, Maroonhoods

Tall Greenhood, Bunochilus longifolius, was formerly known as Pterostylis longifolia. It has a long scape (or stem) up to 40cm high bearing lanceolate stem-clasping leaves between 3 and 8 cm in length. At some time in its life, this plant also has a ground-hugging rosette of leaves (although I have not seen this on the plants I found).

Several flowers on the single stem open in succession from the bottom to the top of the plant. Flowers are small (12mm high by 7mm wide) and are translucent green with darker green markings. Lateral sepals are narrow and point downwards exposing an extremely touch-sensitive brown and yellow labellum. More information on Bunochilus longifolius (synonym Pterostylis longifolia) at PlantNET.

Left, the irritable labellum of the Tall Greenhood has been triggered by disturbance to flip back against the column. Right, the labellum of another Tall Greenhood plant has reset itself awaiting an insect pollinator.

Tall Greenhoods that I found flowering in grassy open forest at Hunter Region Botanic Gardens in August 2007 were not growing in dense colonies, but in sparse groupings of 2 to 6 plants.

A Tall Greenhood plant showing leaves, fertilised ovaries developed into seed pods (the brown and green swollen growths), with the top-most flower still active.

And I'll finish my list of winter orchids with some Nodding Greenhoods, Pterostylis nutans, that I featured last week. It was such a delightful group that I couldn't resist photographing them.

#26 Greenhoods get the nod

2007-08-22T10:54:00.000+10:00

The colour green is a rarity amongst flowers, which makes greenhoods rather special. But not only are these charming little native orchids green, they have an odd, almost comical 'alien' appearance, along with fascinating lives hidden amongst grasses and leaf litter.

Nodding Greenhood, Pterostylis nutans. Notice the pollen packages visible through the translucent hood - resembling frosted glass with green veins.

Late winter has been productive for my orchid hunting in the Hunter Valley, but rather than post several of my recent finds, I'm going to share some of the details of these remarkable natives and their secret lives, along with my images of the cute Nodding Greenhood, Pterostylis nutans.

My previous orchid biology entry gives a general and simple outline of orchid structure, but greenhoods defy the 'normal' petal and sepal structure (if indeed anything amongst orchids is 'normal' or constant).

Greenhood flower structure

Orchid flowers have three sepals and three petals, although at a casual glance, greenhoods don't appear to have this configuration.

Height is variable amongst Nodding Greenhoods. I have visited the colony below on Mount Royal Road east of Singleton over a couple of seasons, and found the plants were all from 4 to 6 cm high. They were growing in moss and lichen over rock. Nodding Greenhoods I've seen in the Lower Hunter growing amongst grasses in sandy soil have been much taller - up to 18cm. [I am presuming the yellow mass in the background is a slime mould]

As their common name suggests, greenhoods have a hood-shaped flower. The two lateral (side) petals and the dorsal (back) sepal have united to form a predominantly green, hood-like structure which protects the reproductive organs.

The two lateral sepals are fused together at the base to form the front of the flower, and protrude to form 'points' or 'ears'. These points generally extend above or to the side of the 'hood'. The third petal is the labellum (or tongue) which is hidden inside the hood.

The ovary of this successfully fertilised greenhood has swollen as seed develops.

In orchids, the male and female reproductive organs are highly modified and fused together, unlike most other plant families where the sex organs are separate.

The remarkable sex lives of Greenhoods

Generally, but not always, greenhood leaves take the form of a rosette of ovate ground-hugging green leaves. All greenhoods are deciduous. After seeds have been released, the above ground parts of the plant die and the plant exists as an underground tuber.

The the seed capsule dries and splits vertically to expose the dust-like seed to the breeze for dispersal. Notice at this stage, the stem has stiffened but is not yet dead - it holds the seed capsule erect in the breeze.

Pollinia (packages of pollen grains) are attached to the tip of the anther (male reproductive organ). The stigma (female reproductive organ) is located just below the anther, and receives the packet of pollen from a visiting insect, which is then transferred to the ovary where fertilisation occurs.

Greenhood flowers are usually pollinated by gnats, and sometimes mosquitos. I didn't know what gnats were, so I checked them out: gnats are common names for a large number of small, non-biting fly or mosquito-like insects in the order Diptera of the genus Mycomya. These tiny flies do not feed. They only live long enough to mate, lay eggs, and die. Eggs are laid in masses in the water or on aquatic vegetation, and larvae feed on living and dead plant matter.

Male gnats are enticed to greenhood flowers by a scent which imitates pheromones (chemical substances) emitted by females of particular gnat species.

The labellum is extremely sensitive to touch, and when triggered by a visiting insect, flips inwards towards the column, temporarily trapping the insect. A pollen package is either collected or received as the insect struggles to escape.

The greenhood flower does not offer nectar to the insect as a reward. This is sexual deception at its best. So the poor young gnat that only has a fleeting life in which to find and fertilise a mate, is duped by this clever little plant.

From a front-on angle, the Nodding Greenhood, Pterostylis nutans, has a sharp down-turned 'beak' and lateral sepals that form points facing the ground.

Cross pollination between different species is largely prevented by using different pollinators, or by placing the pollinium on a different part of the pollinator's body.

Survival strategies of the greenhood

This group includes some of the most drought tolerant orchids in Australia. Survival strategies include the large tuberoids which store moisture; the overlapping rosette of leaves which trap moisture and direct it to the root zone; and the tendency to grow in sites of plant litter accumulation and near rocks where run-off is concentrated.

A rosette of leaves of the Nodding Greenhood

I understand that the fleshy tubers are replaced annually. Dense colonies can also be formed by asexual (vegetative) reproduction, therefore allowing plants to produce offspring without sex.

Asexual reproduction can be made at any time, even before the plant is mature enough to produce seed via sexual reproduction in which insects or other external agents play a part. Vegetative offspring are 'clones' or carbon copies of the parent. The advantage with asexual reproduction is not having to rely on chance, however, the resulting limited genetic variation could be a disadvantage in a longterm evolutionary sense.

Some greenhood species flower more profusely after fire, but if fire destroys plants before seed is set, some species will be disadvantaged.

A colony of Pterostylis nutans, Nodding Greenhoods, amongst leaf litter in open forest in the Watagans National Park.

A taxonomic review of the greenhoods has split Pterostylis into several new genera, but the Nodding Greenhood has a distinctive appearance that is easily recognised. When next you see these charming hooded ground orchids or their many cousins, perhaps you will recall their kinky sex lives or their specialised survival characteristics. They might be small, but there is nothing 'ordinary' about greenhoods.

Greenhood Links

Michorrizal fungal association of greenhoods

Denis Wilson's greenhood observations

Greenhood key - PlantNET

Greenhood biology

#25 What on Earth are Earthstars?

2007-08-09T14:03:00.000+10:00

No, they are not strange exotic blooms, and nor are they pretty little man-made trinkets. They are fungi which pop up in gardens, on the forest floor, and even in sandy heaths.

Delicate and pretty with a shimmering spherical 'ball' surrounded by a petal-like 'skirt', I photographed this earthstar in Barrington Tops National Park - April 2006

Geastrum, commonly known as Earthstars, are characteristically similar to Puffballs, but with the noticable difference of an added outer layer.

What are fungi, anyhow?

The vast and varying array of fungi sprouting in forests, fields and gardens are the temporary reproductive organ (or fruit body) sent forth by its underground parent when climatic conditions are favourable.

Fungi do not belong to the plant kingdom as they do not depend on light as an energy source, therefore, do not photosynthesise.

The major part of a fungus is essentially invisible, consisting of microscopic threads (called hyphae), weaving their way through the substrate. The substrate could be soil, wood (living or dead), or other dead or living material. A mass of hyphae is called a mycelium. Occasionally these threads can be seen near the soil surface if a 'mushroom' is disturbed.

Almost 'flying saucer-like' in appearance, this spore-filled earthstar sac sits atop its recurved outer skin - in the rainforest of Barrington Tops National Park - April 2006

The main function of the fungus fruiting body in the many forms that we observe, is to produce spores for reproduction. These dust-like spores are held on the gills, spines or pores of the fertile surface of fungi, or in the 'sac' of puffballs and earthstars.

Depending on the structure of the fungus, spores are dispersed by air currents, rain drops or running water, or pressure produced by vegetation movement and passing animals. Some spores are ingested by animals and dispersed as they are passed through the gut. Amazingly, some fungi even project spore-filled 'packages' in a cannon-like fashion. And thus, new fungi colonies are established.

Earthstars start out as 'eggs' with a double layer of 'skin' (right). The outer layer splits to reveal the inner 'sac' (left)

It is the responsibility of the mycelium (underground threads) to provide nutrition. This is a complex process, but put simply, there are three main categories relating to feeding:

Saprotrophic fungi break down components of dead organic material. These provide a vital role in recycling the Earth's accumulation of dead vegetation and animals, returning nutrients to the soil.

Parasitic fungi obtain nutrients from living orgainisms with no benefit to the host. This not only includes living trees and other plants, but also other fungi and animals such as underground larvae of moths.

Symbiotic fungi form an association with a living organism which is of benefit to both. Fungi whose hyphae form a relationship with roots of trees and other plants are referred to as mycorrhizal.

Notice the spore-containing sac of the aging earthstar on the left is beginning to disfigure due to pressure exerted on the paper-thin skin by wind and rain. On the right is a newly-emerged earthstar that has not split its outer layer.

I have found earthstars in a wide variety of habitats ranging from moist mountain rainforest, dry woodland, grassy fields and gardens, to the nutrient-poor sand plains of south west Western Australia. All the Geastrum specimens here were photographed in the Hunter Valley.

The structure of Earthstars

The fruit body initially resembles a puffball as a spherical object sitting on the ground, usually in small loose groups or solitary. It can have a sandpaperish appearance or be coated in powdery flecks. The outer layer of the fungus will split at the top and peel downwards to form a petal-like 'skirt', giving rise to the "star" shape it is named for. In some species, the outer layer will arch to push the spore sac higher.

As the outer skin peels back, the mouth (or stoma) of the inner spore-bearing recepticle is exposed. At first, the spore mass (gleba) is firm, but quickly matures to a powder which is dispersed through the opening as rain drops or wind apply pressure to the paper thin walls.

A Geastrum species that arches to push the spore sac up - in a park garden at Wollombi in the Hunter Valley

As yet, I have not attempted to identify any of my Geastrum finds, but according to Fungimap (a project run by the Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne), there are only about 10 species in Australia, so it might be possible for me to narrow down likely identifications, with considerable persistence.

For those interested in a more detailed account of the structure of Geastrum species, this Fungimap page provides a good description.

A mature Earthstar and 'egg' - Barrington Tops NP

You're likely to encounter Earthstars at any time of year, but predominately in autumn and early winter, and often following rain. I found several Geastrum in mulched public gardens as the ground started to dry out after the June 2007 Hunter Valley floods. Delightful little things, arn't they?

#24 Pretty Peas

2007-07-30T13:56:00.000+10:00

The Hunter Valley is not known for its wildflowers, but considering few significant stands of valley floor native vegetation have escaped clearing, it is not surprising that flowering shrubs and herbs are scarce. But for those wishing to observe our local native blooms, scattered splashes of colour survive, but unfortunately, do not prosper.

Oxylobium pulteneae - Wiry Shaggy Pea is possibly the prettiest pea flower I have found in the Hunter. The short terminal clusters of bright orange flowers were hard to miss, even amongst rampant grasses. Short narrow green leaves are mostly arranged in whorls of three. Most noticible is the downiness of the sepals. Flowering period is October to November. More details at PlantNET.

Pea-flowered plants are legumes and belong to family Fabaceae, which is the third largest in the plant kingdom after the orchid and daisy families. Most leguminous plants develop root nodules in association with Rhizobium bacteria and are capable of converting atmospheric nitrogen into more complex nigrogenous compounds. The wattles (Acacia) and the sennas (Senna) and their relatives are also legumes.

Reproduction and regeneration

Environmental needs of native pea-flowering plants are complex, and on-going study will shed further light on the specialised needs of various species. A brief and simple description of the structure of pea flowers can be viewed here.

Oxylobium ilicfolium - Native Holly or Prickly Shaggy-pea has particularly attractive 'holly-shaped' foliage and neat growth habit. This plant is reasonably common on poor soil in small pockets of unmaintained scrub and roadsides. Flowering season is September to November. More details at PlantNET.

The pea flowers generally consist of understory shrubs, herbs and trailing plants in a range of habitats. Habitat loss as a result of urban and rural development is a major threat to the survival of native plant communities in the Hunter Valley.

Other threats include weed invasion, nutrient enrichment of soil due to agriculture and fertilisation practices, disturbance by vehicles and rubbish, along with failure to implement appropriate fire regime required by some species.

Roughly half of the Fabaceae genera are predominately fire sensitive (eg. Dillwynia, Pultenaea) with the remainder able to resprout following fire (eg. Daviesia, Bossiaea).

Indigofera australis - Native Indigo is also an often seen roadside plant with showy pink to lilac racemes sprouting from leaf axil. It is a spindly bush to a metre or more in height that sways in the breeze, and flowers from August to September. More details at PlantNET.

Some legume species have a release mechanism which ejects seed from mature pods a small distance from the plant (eg. Daviesia, Kennedia, Hardenbergia), while other species have a passive release mechanism whereby seeds are dropped directly to the ground.

Fabaceae generally have hard seeds that dry out during ripening and become impermeable to water. Most have long-lived seedbanks stored in the substrate. Some seed dormancy can only be broken by fire, which creates restrictions on germination due to the inappropriate implementation of fire regime locally. Here is some interesting and easy-to-read observations regarding fire and Australian natural environments. There is more here.

Jacksonia scorparia - Dogwood makes an attractive display of weeping yellow, leaf-less shrubs up to two or three metres high, in October and November. If you are lucky enough to see them massed, they are beautiful. They often grow where run-off water occasionally collects. More details at PlantNET.

Not only do many legume species rely on heat and/or smoke from fire to break seed dormancy, but many plants do not reach sexual maturity until between three and five years, therefore, if fire occurs too frequently, plants do not have the opportunity to produce seed.

Numerous insects are associated with legumes during flowering and fruiting. Pollinators include native and introduced bees, wasps, beetles and flies. Certain beetle seed predators appear to be totally dependant on legumes for their survival. Ants are thought to be important distributors of seed amongst the peas.

Kennedia rubicunda - Dusky Coral-pea is a robust climber and I was pleasantly surprised to find this plant with large red pea flowers scrambling over shrubs, weeds and rocks. The 4cm-long flowers hang in an eye-catching display. As with all Kennedia species, leaves are arranged in threes. Its main flowering period is between July and November. More details at PlantNET.

All the peas I'm featuring here were photograhed in the Broke/Wollombi regions of the Hunter Valley on roadside areas that escaped council slashing due to hilly or rocky terrain.

Daviesia ulicifolia - Gorse Bitter-pea. Although the yellow and brown flowers on this low rounded shrub are small, I found it an interesting plant with its small rigid sharply-pointed leaves. It flowers from August to November and has several subspecies. More details at PlantNET.

Many of Australia's native plants have prickly foliage. Presumably this protects young plants from being grazed by native animals. During my bushland rambles, I have noticed that peas are no exception to sharp and stiff leaves. I find these to be some of the most interesting plants I encounter.

PlantNet has a comprehensive list of Australian pea-flowering plants with information and photographs.

Hardenbergia violacea - Purple Twining-pea is a common and vigorous ground-cover that trails through the undergrowth, over rocks and roadside banks. This plant has been adapted well to home garden use. It has broadly ovate strongly veined leaves up to 9cm long and conspicuous racemes of violet flowers with yellow centres. Flowering period is mainly July to October. More details at PlantNET.

So keep a look out for these little beauties of the Australian bush blooming in a rainbow of colours from late winter to early summer. This is just a small sample of what's on offer for those nature observers with a keen eye. They are fascinating plants with complex lives and interesting habits. They can also be very pretty. Enjoy them!