#50 It's fungus season !

Australia's main fungus season extends between mid autumn and mid winter, so is nearing an end this year. But smaller numbers of fungi will keep appearing in moist conditions right through til late spring, and of course, it is possible to stumble upon fungi throughout the entire year. I'm always on the lookout for these fascinating life forms.

Here, I will outline a brief guide to the different types of fungi that are commonly found, in an attempt to shed some light on the structure of fungi for novices.

When I'm wandering bush trails, or picnicking in parks or enjoying public gardens, I can often be seen down on all fours peering up the skirts of mushrooms. That's because it is necessary to check out the fertile surface of the fungus to determine in which category it belongs.

The major part of a fungus is not the "mushroom" or "toadstool" we see in the field, but the largely unseen microscopic threads, called hyphae, weaving their way through the substrate (soil, wood, or other dead or living organisms). A mass of hyphae is called a mycelium.

The mycelium of a fungus is responsible for nutrition and producing fruit bodies. The fruit body is the fungus we see in the field, and its main function is to produce spores for reproduction.

Spores are produced on the fertile surface of the fungus which varies greatly and can take the form of gills, pores, spines, folds, clubs, gelatinous blobs, and more.

The Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria) is a

poisonous introduced fungus

Agaricus

The agarics have gills, are usually fleshy, and have a cap covering the spore-bearing layer. This is indeed the stereotyped structure we would call a "mushroom", but not all agarics have stems, and can vary tremendously in structure, size and habit.

Orange Fan (Anthracophylum archeri) and Splitgill (Schizophyllum commune) are common examples of gilled fungi that differ from the typical "mushroom" appearance.

The fertile surface of a bolete is made up of pores

Boletus

Boletes are "mushroom-like" in general appearance, but instead of gills, the fertile surface consists of pores. The fleshy cap contains tubes which are downward facing and open at the base. These openings are called "pores". The spores will be released from these pore openings.

A spine fungus, Hydnum repandum

Spine fungi

The fertile surface in the group is made up of spines or teeth instead of gills or pores. Some are mushroom-shaped (as Hydnum repandum above), either fleshy or tough and leathery, while others form closely adhering crusts (eg Mycoacia subceracea) on the undersides of logs and branches.

A stemless bracket fungi belonging to

Polyporus group

Polyporus

This group includes the leathery, tough or woody brackets, as well as mushroom-like fungi and crusts that have pores or woody gill-like plates instead of the soft gill or pore structure of agarics or boletus.

Some will have stems (eg Red-staining Polypore, Amauroderma rude), but many will consist of a bracket or fan-shaped woody body adhered to dead or living wood (eg White Punk, Laetiporus portentosus). Some brackets will be thin, whilst others will be many centimetres thick.

A puffball breaks the surface of bitumen

Puffballs

There are several groups contained in the puffball fungi category. Soft, simple puffballs are common in grasslands and forests, with some preferring compacted areas like roadside verges. Spores are contained in a "skin" appearing as a ball-like structure. When mature, the outer skin punctures, breaks, or falls away to expose the spores to the elements. Spores are distributed either by wind, rain, running water or animal movement.

Variations within the puffball group are Earth Stars, which have a double layer of tissue, the outer layer of which splits to expose the central puffball containing the spores. There are also hard-skinned puffballs and stalked puffballs.

A very pretty "coral" fungus

Coral and club fungi

Coral fungi include simple or branched clubs as well as large complex coral-like structures. Most species grow on the ground, and the fertile tissue covers all but the stem.

I have seen coral fungi growing in soil ranging from swampy, moist rainforest, alpine grasslands to dry woodland, in just about all the colours of the rainbow.

Plectania campylospora, Brown Forest Cup

Cup fungi

The cup fungi form a large group that contains species in which the fertile layer is cup-shaped or flat to convex. The spores are contained on the inner or upper surface of the fungus.

Cups can be stalked as Brown Forest Cup (Plectania campylospora), or ground-hugging as Aleurina ferruginea.

A bird's-nest fungus, Cyathus stercoreus

Bird's-nest fungi

These are tiny fungi fruiting bodies that are typically shaped like a bird's nest. They produce their spores in hard-skinned packages, called peridioles, which are exposed to the weather when the top of the "nest" breaks open. Generally, bird's-nest fungi grow on herbivore dung or rotting wood, and have the spore-containing peridioles distributed by raindrops splashing them out of the "nest".

Two of my bird's-nest fungi observations can be viewed here: Nidula emodensis and Cyathus stercoreus.

Auricularia cornea is a jelly fungus

Jelly fungi

Jelly fungi are gelatinous in texture and appearance. They have a very high water content, and are usually found on wood or as parasites of other fungi. The fertile tissue covers the greater part of the surface in convoluted forms, but only the lower surface of bracket forms.

Toothed Jelly Fungus, (Pseudohydnum gelatinosum) is a bracket-like fungus, and has firm spines on the under surface which collapse into a gelatinous blob with age. Other jelly fungi take the form of odd blobs and folds, often spreading in rows along rotting timber.

Aseroe rubra, Starfish Stinkhorn, and "eggs"

Stinkhorn fungi

Stinkhorns are a distinctive group of fungi having bizarre forms accompanied by strong, unpleasant odours. The fruting bodies develop in egg-like sacs that are ruptured by the spore-bearing receptacle as it rapidly expands at maturity.

The spore-bearing gleba is a foul-smelling brown to greenish-brown slime that is eagerly consumed by flies and other insects, which in turn, distribute the spores.

These strange and often offensive fungi will pop up in mulched gardens and lawns, creating an intriguing display. I have catalogued some of my stinkhorn finds here.

As you can see, fungi are not just your average "mushroom". Observing and studying fungi can be a very rewarding and fascinating hobby. It is predicted that the majority of Australia's fungi have not yet been studied, so it is quite likely that amateur fungi enthusiasts could play an important role in recording new species.

Further reading:

Australian Fungi Blog

Australian National Botanic Gardens - Fungi

Fungimap

#25 What on Earth are Earthstars?

No, they are not strange exotic blooms, and nor are they pretty little man-made trinkets. They are fungi which pop up in gardens, on the forest floor, and even in sandy heaths.

Delicate and pretty with a shimmering spherical 'ball' surrounded by a petal-like 'skirt', I photographed this earthstar in Barrington Tops National Park - April 2006

Geastrum, commonly known as Earthstars, are characteristically similar to Puffballs, but with the noticable difference of an added outer layer.

What are fungi, anyhow?

The vast and varying array of fungi sprouting in forests, fields and gardens are the temporary reproductive organ (or fruit body) sent forth by its underground parent when climatic conditions are favourable.

Fungi do not belong to the plant kingdom as they do not depend on light as an energy source, therefore, do not photosynthesise.

The major part of a fungus is essentially invisible, consisting of microscopic threads (called hyphae), weaving their way through the substrate. The substrate could be soil, wood (living or dead), or other dead or living material. A mass of hyphae is called a mycelium. Occasionally these threads can be seen near the soil surface if a 'mushroom' is disturbed.

Almost 'flying saucer-like' in appearance, this spore-filled earthstar sac sits atop its recurved outer skin - in the rainforest of Barrington Tops National Park - April 2006

The main function of the fungus fruiting body in the many forms that we observe, is to produce spores for reproduction. These dust-like spores are held on the gills, spines or pores of the fertile surface of fungi, or in the 'sac' of puffballs and earthstars.

Depending on the structure of the fungus, spores are dispersed by air currents, rain drops or running water, or pressure produced by vegetation movement and passing animals. Some spores are ingested by animals and dispersed as they are passed through the gut. Amazingly, some fungi even project spore-filled 'packages' in a cannon-like fashion. And thus, new fungi colonies are established.

Earthstars start out as 'eggs' with a double layer of 'skin' (right). The outer layer splits to reveal the inner 'sac' (left)

It is the responsibility of the mycelium (underground threads) to provide nutrition. This is a complex process, but put simply, there are three main categories relating to feeding:

Saprotrophic fungi break down components of dead organic material. These provide a vital role in recycling the Earth's accumulation of dead vegetation and animals, returning nutrients to the soil.

Parasitic fungi obtain nutrients from living orgainisms with no benefit to the host. This not only includes living trees and other plants, but also other fungi and animals such as underground larvae of moths.

Symbiotic fungi form an association with a living organism which is of benefit to both. Fungi whose hyphae form a relationship with roots of trees and other plants are referred to as mycorrhizal.


Notice the spore-containing sac of the aging earthstar on the left is beginning to disfigure due to pressure exerted on the paper-thin skin by wind and rain. On the right is a newly-emerged earthstar that has not split its outer layer.

I have found earthstars in a wide variety of habitats ranging from moist mountain rainforest, dry woodland, grassy fields and gardens, to the nutrient-poor sand plains of south west Western Australia. All the Geastrum specimens here were photographed in the Hunter Valley.

The structure of Earthstars

The fruit body initially resembles a puffball as a spherical object sitting on the ground, usually in small loose groups or solitary. It can have a sandpaperish appearance or be coated in powdery flecks. The outer layer of the fungus will split at the top and peel downwards to form a petal-like 'skirt', giving rise to the "star" shape it is named for. In some species, the outer layer will arch to push the spore sac higher.

As the outer skin peels back, the mouth (or stoma) of the inner spore-bearing recepticle is exposed. At first, the spore mass (gleba) is firm, but quickly matures to a powder which is dispersed through the opening as rain drops or wind apply pressure to the paper thin walls.

A Geastrum species that arches to push the spore sac up - in a park garden at Wollombi in the Hunter Valley

As yet, I have not attempted to identify any of my Geastrum finds, but according to Fungimap (a project run by the Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne), there are only about 10 species in Australia, so it might be possible for me to narrow down likely identifications, with considerable persistence.

For those interested in a more detailed account of the structure of Geastrum species, this Fungimap page provides a good description.

A mature Earthstar and 'egg' - Barrington Tops NP

You're likely to encounter Earthstars at any time of year, but predominately in autumn and early winter, and often following rain. I found several Geastrum in mulched public gardens as the ground started to dry out after the June 2007 Hunter Valley floods. Delightful little things, arn't they?

#22 Secretive Slime Moulds

If you've ever spied strange slimy stuff creeping through your garden, or tiny baubles or blobs adorning mulch or foliage, and thought it too odd to be any life-form you're familiar with, there's every chance it could be a slime mould.

#1 Slime mould on Birds Nest Fungi in my herb garden

The Myxomycota, commonly known as slime moulds do not belong to the fungi kingdom, but in many aspects they are fungi-like and are studied by mycologists. Slime moulds belong to the kingdom Protoctista.

What are slime moulds?

Exhibiting some characteristics of both plants and animals, it is little wonder that slime moulds have a history of confusing classification. They move and feed like animals, engulfing bacteria and other micro-organisms, fungi, and decaying organic matter. But slime moulds contain cellulose, the stuff of plants. Cellulose is not found in fungi.

#2 Pink stalked sporangia of a slime mould

Slime moulds live in damp terrestrial habitats such as below garden mulch or forest-floor debris, and inside decaying logs.

Life cycle of a slime mould

When conditions are ideal for reproduction (warm and moist), the plasmodium (a mass containing many nuclei) moves to a drier, better-lit place. The plasmodium can be white, grey, yellow, orange, brown or grey jelly-like or frothy patches on the lawn, logs, mulch or leaf litter.

The slimy plasmodium can move up to a metre, or more, and can climb objects in order to reach a site which will be suitable to spore dispersal. Thousands of individual cells congregate and flow together in a mass called a pseudo-plasmodium often resembling a slug, until it settles in a position with suitable light and warmth for transformation into reproductive structures.

#3 Fruiting bodies of slime mould in my garden

The creeping stages often look alike, making identification difficult. When they fruit they take on more individual characteristics. Positive identification, however, is difficult, even for the experts.

Identification

There are four main types of fruiting bodies. The most common fruit body is the sporangium where the protoplasm separates to form tiny fruit bodies usually only a couple of mm in height, each with its own peridium (protective covering for spores) - examples in images #1, #2 and #7.

The aethalium is a relative large, but variable fruiting body, that forms crusty masses. Each cushion-like structure has a single peridium containing the reproductive spores - examples in images #3 and #4.

The plasmodiocarp consists of a fat network of veins on the surface of decaying logs. The peridium is laid down on the outside of the fat veins - example Pretzel Slime Mould (Hemitrichia serpula).

The fourth is pseudoaethalium where the fruiting body consists of sporangia closely crowded together - example Tubifera ferruginosa.

#4 When damaged, the crust breaks to reveal spores

Of the three slime moulds I am featuring here, the first two were found in my backyard mulched herb garden, while the third was found in a moist alpine environment in New England National Park (north of the Hunter Valley).

Image #1 shows the sporangia of a slime mould that has fruited on Birds Nest Fungi, Cyathus stercoreus, in a mulched garden in my backyard in April 2007. The fungi are only 5 to 8mm in diameter, so the tiny size of the slime mould fruiting bodies is evident.

Image #2 is a pale pink version of the same fruiting bodies as in image #1, photographed on the same day on mulch.

#5 Plasmodium in active mobile phase

Image #3 shows the fruiting stage of a slime mould that could possibly be a Fuligo species. I found this in February 2005 on fallen chile leaves and straw mulch in my backyard herb garden.

Image #4 is the same species with the crusty exterior cracked to expose spores.

#6 The same species as pic 5, plasmodium separating

Images #5, #6 and #7 are the same slime mould photographed in May 2007 on leaf litter in alpine woodland. Pic 5 shows the active mobile stage, pic 6 shows the separating stage, and pic 7 shows the sporangium formed. The sporangia will dry out and crack to expose spores to be dispersed by the wind. Fifteen hours elapsed between picture 6 and 7.

#7 Sporangium (spore bearing capsules) of the slime mould of previous two images

There is no cause for alarm if you find these creeping slimy growths in your lawn or garden. They will not harm your pets if injested, and there is no evidence that they cause harm to plants.

Although some slime moulds can look quite disgusting and bear such names as "Dog Vomit Slime Mould", most are exquisitely beautiful when studied up close. Next time you encounter a slime mould in its reproductive stage, take a look at the intricate detail, and I feel sure you will agree with me about their beauty.

More Slime Mould reading

Slime Mould basics

Structural characteristics

Anatomy and life cycle

More biology

#16 A ghostly fungus

Have you ever seen a glow-in-the-dark fungus? If so, then you will relate to my feeling of sheer astonishment and wonderment upon first sighting wild luminous fungi. Out of the forest darkness, an eerie green glow emanates like some unearthly object, and if you're familiar with fungi, you just know that you've found one of nature's mysterious creations.

Funnel-shaped Ghost Fungi

If, on the other hand, you are unfamiliar with fungi, you would be forgiven for thinking you had stumbled upon a fabulous scientific discovery, or even some frightening beastie from another world.

I first became aware of, and interested in fungi when I purchased a fungi identification handbook while camping in central western Victoria several years ago. Since then, I have been keen to observe and learn about Australia's beautiful and weird fungi. I have begun recording my fungi finds in what I hope will eventually be a useful collection of observations and images. This growing collection can be found here.

A young Ghost Fungus starts out with orange/brown cap and yellow gills

Ghost Fungi scientific name is Omphalotus nidiformis, pronounced Omfa-lotus nidee-form-iss. Most scientific names are difficult to get the tongue around, but this one just rolls off the tongue once you repeat it a few times.

Recognising Ghost Fungi

These funnel-shaped fungi flatten out with age and can reach a diameter of 200mm. They are found on living and dead wood, both native and exotic, and can often be found in gardens and parks. The colour of the cap can vary from white or cream with blue and black centre and yellow tinges, to tones of purple and pink.

Ghost Fungi sprouting from a banksia stump

They often form large clusters and make a great display by day. But it is by night that their true brilliance shines.

Bioluminescent fungi

Living things which are capable of creating their own light are called 'bioluminescent'. Bioluminescence occurs when a particular enzyme (luciferase) and a particular chemical (luciferin) react. A third element needs to be present for this reaction to take place which varies according to the type of animal or fungus. The end result is the release of energy in the form of light.

A cluster of fungi on a dead pine stump

But why would a fungus use light? There are very few researchers in Australia involved in the study of this fascinating aspect, but perhaps as more species are discovered with this strange ability, more answers for the existence of bioluminescence will come to light!

The more unusual darker colours of a Ghost Fungus

The first time I witnessed these luminous fungi at night was in the pine plantations in the mountains of the New England region near Nundle in NSW. We were camping at Hanging Rock, observing and photographing fungi in the pine forests. Upon finding a clump of Omphalotus nidiformis, we attempted to memorise the location to return after dark.

So while 'normal' campers were enjoying the warmth of a campfire, we rugged up and headed off to find the mysterious glowing mushrooms. This was no easy task, as forest tracks were all unmarked, and it was with some trepidation that we wandered off into the pig-infested forest with a torch. But this natural phenomenon was an unforgettable experience with an eerie lime-green glow spreading up a tree trunk in the foggy blackness of the damp, cold forest.

I have not attempted to photograph Ghost Fungi at night, but here are some images showing the lime-green glow.

Ghost Fungi at Hunter Region Botanic Gardens

In the Hunter, I have seen Ghost fungi clusters by the Williams River in Barrington Tops National Park, and at the Hunter Region Botanic Gardens at Heatherbrae. The Botanic Gardens are not open at night, but if you find these fungi in an accessible location, it really is a worthwhile experience to check them out after dark. They fruit at any time throughout the year, but as with most fungi, the main fruiting period is autumn and early winter.

#10 Life cycle of a Puffball

It's more than just a dull, round, white blob in the grass - it's an intriguing life form. A puffball. Generally they are whitish, roundish, varying from marble-sized to gigantic washdish-sized, and have a tendancy to explode.

My puffball study subject on day 4

Of course that is a gross generalisation. There are many bizarre puffballs, some of which I have found around the Hunter Valley and will share in the future.

A puffball is a fungus that has an outer casing in which the spores are contained. Upon maturity, the fruiting fungus body will perforate in some manner to expose the spores which will then spread by various means.

A puffball study

Calvatia cyathiformis, often rererred to as the Purple-spored Puffball, can pop up at any time of year under damp conditions, but as with most fungi, it's main fruiting period is autumn and early winter. [Note: I do not have the technical expertise to confidently identify fungi, but a process of elimination makes my identification here likely.]

Day 6 - tesselated cracking

The habitat for my extended observation was an unimproved grazing paddock. Weather conditions throughout the study in November were varied. Maximum daytime temperatures ranged from 20s to 40s, with some very strong north-westerly winds and cool southerly breezes, along with a few short light to heavy showers.

Calvatia cyathiformis is a terrestrial puffball, relatively smooth and spherical or slightly flattened when young, often becoming pear-shaped as it matures.

On day 4 (first image), the outer skin started to split revealing the firm white marshmallow-looking gleba. When the interior of these puffballs is firm and white they are apparently edible, but wild fungi are not on my menu, so I can't vouch for their palatability.

Day 10 - skin loosens and begins to break away

The skin dried and started cracking on day 5. By day 6 (second image) the tesselated surface revealed the fleshy spore-bearing mass beginning to turn purple, and by day 8 had started lifting. I took photographs every two or three days.

Day 20 - the puffball skin has fallen away

I was rather surprised that the 'peeling' process took so long in the wet, windy conditions. The fragile structure didn't completely fall apart in the rain, instead, the rain just served to finish the discarding of the protective skin exposing the crumbling mature purplish spore mass to the elements.

Day 23 - the spore mass begins to disperse

The spore mass did not disperse all at once. Some broke off in clumps with the westerly winds, and some blew in the other direction with the southerlies. The spores continued to spread with a fine dusting around the fungus site, and after a heavy shower on day 29 the spores were completely dispersed, leaving the remaining soft leathery cup-shaped sterile base lightly rooted to the ground.

Day 29 - dispersal of spores is complete

During my month-long study, there were only a couple of horses in the paddock, but on day 30, cows were introduced to the paddock and a cow pie was deposited fair on top of the spent fungus, so I was lucky to complete my fungus observations.

Distorted shapes of Calvatia cyathiformis

Amazingly, if you inadvertently up-root one from it's foundations, it will still mature and complete it's life cycle without means of obtaining water or nutrients from the substrate. And as it does not produce chlorophyl, it also does not need sunlight.

Fungus season is approaching, so you might see these and other species of puffball popping up in your yard, local reserves or on roadside verges. They are not some dreadful lawn pest, but the marvelous reproductive vessel of a fungus that is going about it's valuable recycling work in the soil below.

#5 Strange Stinkhorns

It could be the pink wrinkled paw of a weird and unknown creature hatching from an egg in an ancient forest, but it's just a fungus in a garden.....

Local parks, reserves and botanic gardens can be excellent places to observe nature up close. The four stinkhorn fungi that I am featuring here were all photographed at the Hunter Region Botanic Gardens at Heatherbrae on the Pacific Highway north of Newcastle.

What are stinkhorns?

Stinkhorn fungi belong to the Clathraceae family. Most have an absurd eye-catching appearance that varies from phallic-shaped or tentacled, basket-shaped to draped in delicate lacy skirts. But all have two common features: they emerge from a terrestrial egg-like structure, and they produce a foul smelling sticky spore mass.

Aseroe rubra with its spore-coated red tentacles emerging from an egg-like sac

The spherical or flattened glutinous egg forms on or just below the ground surface, and if dissected reveals a fully developed compressed fruiting body awaiting the right conditions to emerge and mature. The image above shows the Starfish Stinkhorn, Aseroe rubra, emerged from the ruptured 'egg'.

Starfish or Anemone Fungus, Aseroe rubra, is found in Australia's eastern states in moist mulched gardens as well as alpine grasslands and mountain woodlands. As far as I am aware, it is not found in the west, but if residents of the western and dry inland parts of Australia have seen this growing in their areas I'd be interested to hear about it.

There are more pictures and observations of Aseroe rubra at my Australian Fung Blog.

A Starfish Fungus with its hollow stalk, divided arms and brown spore mass

My first sighting of the Starfish Fungus was in the moist rainforest of Barrington Tops National Park east of the Hunter Valley, but since then I have found several, and often massed displays, at the Hunter Region Botanic Gardens. The preferred habitat of many stinkhorns is mulched gardens, so therefore they can make regular appearances in home gardens.

Reproduction

Stinkhorn fungi stink for a reason. Flies and other insects that are attracted to the smell of rotting flesh or faeces are drawn to the foul odour of the fungi. The odour emanates from a greenish-brown gooey substance (gleba) that contains spores. Visiting insects find this slime delectable and trample in it as they feast, then unwittingly spread the fungus spores enabling the stinkhorn life-cycle to continue elsewhere.

Phallus rubicundus is a common stinkhorn popping up in mulched gardens and rainforest humus

Phallic-looking fruiting bodies emerge from egg-like sacs and can elongate several inches within a period of a few hours, making these striking and almost obscene growths a novelty in suburban gardens and lawns. The novelty soon wears off, however, as the pong of the fungi reaches the kitchen window. But I will admit that my olfactory glands were not offended and I think their unsavoury reputation is somewhat exaggerated.

But as odd and repugnant as they might appear, they will do no harm to your garden and will wilt and decay within a very short period of time.

Note in the Phallus rubicundus image above the stem is perforated and hollow. It resembles the texture of foam rubber. The conical cap coated in a sticky spore mass is separated from the stem, joined only at the summit. This separated cap is an important feature in identifying it from similar phallic stinkhorns.

Lantern Fungus

I have only encountered one flurry of Lantern Fungi, Lysurus mokusin, at the Hunter Region Botanic Gardens. The tip of the pinkish-orange stalk is branched into 4 to 6 short arms which often remain joined. The number of arms corresponds with the number of angular ribs on the stalk and the gooey brown spore mass is concentrated in the vertical depressions between the arms.

An aging Lantern Stinkhorn with spreading arms

Mutinus borneensis is a white stinkhorn, narrower than the previous two orange phallic fungi I've illustrated here. On emerging from the small glutinous sac, it also elongates at a remarkable rate, attracting flies to the orange-brown pointed tip coated in brown spore bearing gleba.

Egg-like sacs of Mutinus borneensis generally make a massed display

Wood chips and organic matter provide ideal habitat for stinkhorn fungi, so mulched gardens and local parks are likely to support occasional outbreaks of these strange but fascinating growths. Observe them if you have the opportunity. In some parts of the world it is reputed that these jelly eggs and spongy fetid fungi end up on the dinner table, but not in this household!

Digging them out or poisoning them will not rid your garden of these odd creations. They will be fleeting, so enjoy their brief existence.

Via my blog counter, I notice that there are many international visitors to this page on some of Australia's interesting stinkhorn fungi. I would be most interested to know if my pictures and observations have helped others identify stinkhorns from other countries. If readers feel inclined to leave a brief message via the 'comments' tag below or my email contact on the right of the page, I would be most appreciative.